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Practical Work in 

GEOGRAPHY, 

FOR THE USE OF 

Teachers and Advanced Pupils. 


Being a Guide for the young teacher in Teaching Preparatory, 
Elementary and Advanced work in Geography, showing 

WHAT TO TEACH AND WHAT TO OMIT FROM THE 

TEXT BOOKS. 



HENRY McCORMICK, Ph. D., 

Professor of History and Geography, in the Illinois State Normal 

University, Normal, Illinois. 


* y * ? !'? ''» ,*■ j 

CHICAGO*. 

A. FLANAGAN, Publisher, 







V 















Copyright, 1885. 

By HENRY McCORMICK. 







N ? * 

r* \ 

\ 


r\ 






\ 


<1 








PREFACE. 


In preparing this little work, I have tried to make it a guide 
for young teachers. The field of geographical study is so 
vast that it requires considerable thought to determine wisely 
what should be taught and what omitted. This book contains 
what seems to me a reasonable amount of the proper kind of 
work for each of the three departments — Preparatory (or 
Primary), Elementary and Advanced; and gives some sug- 
gestions in regard to the method of doing it. 

I have been greatly aided in the preparation of this Manual 
by Lippincott’s Pronouncing Gazetteer of the World (a work 
which every teacher of Geography shouid have on his desk), 
the various Encyclopedias and other works mentioned else- 
where in the book. 

Henry McCormick. 


Normal , Illinois , May u, 1885 . 


CONTENTS. 


Direction, Distance and Form 7 

Lessons Around Home 12 

Object Lessons 22 

The Earth as a Whole 26 

North America 36 

British and Danish America 117 

United States 43 

New England States 48, 128 

The Middle States 55, 137, 144 

. The Southern States 60, 150, 155 

Eastern Central States 64, 155 

Western Central States 68, 163 

Western States and Territories 71, 173 

Mexico, Central America and West Indies 181 

Great Britain and Ireland 81, 198 

Norway, Sweden and Northern Russia 86, 214 

German Empire, Denmark and Holland 219 

Belgium, France, Spain, Portugal and Switzerland. . .91, 231 

Italy, Montenegro, Greece and Turkey 96, 243 

Roumania, Servia, Austria and Russia 99, 251 

North and Northeastern Asia 103, 261 

Southern Asia, China, Anam, Siam 108, 267 

India, Beloochistan, Afghanistan and Persia 274 

Asiatic Turkey 2S0 

Africa, Australia and Pacific Islands. 1 13, 288, 295 

Astronomical Geography 301 

System of Survey 31 1 

Mottoes and meaning of Names of States 317 


Form. Distance. Direction. 


SCHEME OF CHAPTER I. 


'i. Cardinal points. 


r i. Absolute. - 


. 2. Relative. 


.2. Semi-cardinal. 

\ i. Things near. 

[ 2. Things remote. 


' i. North. 

2. South. 

3. East. 

4. West. 

' 1. Southeast. 
2. Northeast. 

' 3. Northwest. 
4. Southwest. 




1. Children 
provided with - 
one-foot rules. 


1 . Inches marked. 

2. Teach one-foot, one-half of a foot, one- 

fourth, one inch. 

3. Teach one yard. 

4. Draw lines to indicate each length. 

5. Children measure objects and give length. 

6. Tests. 


v. 


2. Method of f 
teaching, j 

2. Mile. 


1. Measurements in school- 

room. 

2. Distance between familiar ob- 

jects near schoolroom, 
f 1. Select familiar objects that are 
^ ‘ a mile apart. 

[2. Tests. 


r 1. Lines. 


2. Angles. 

3. Triangle. 

4. Square. 

5. Rectangle. 

6. Circle. 




r. Vertical. 

2. Horizontal. 

3. Parallel. 

4. Oblique. 

5. Curved. 


f 1. Right. 

\ 2. Acute, or sharp. 
[3. Obtuse, or blunt. 


1. Circumference. 

2. Center. 


















PART I. 


PREPARATORY GEOGRAPHY. 

CHAPTER I. 


DIRECTION, DISTANCE, AND FORM. 

Tims nf He ginning. — This work may begin at any 
time after the child enters school, and should begin as 
early as the middle of the second year. It should be regard- 
ed as a preparation for the study of geography rather than 
geography itself. But it is none the less valuable on that ac- 
count. If properly done it will enable the pupil, at the suita- 
ble time, to enter upon the study of geography with an appre- 
ciation of the subject, which is lacking in those who begin the 
study without preparation. 

nirBCtian, — If the children do not already know 
the cardinal points, let those be taught first. Noon is a good 
time to introduce the subject. If at this time the children 
stand with their backs to the sun, their shadows will fall to 
the North. The point opposite the north is South. On their 
right is East, and on their left West. 

To test their knowledge of these points they may be asked 
to face the east, west, and the south. When facing the east, 
what direction on their right? What on the left? In what di- 
rection will their shadows fall at sunset? At sunrise? Get them 
to point to objects in the schoolroom which are north of them, 
south, east, west. 


8 


PREPARATORY WORK 


When satisfied that the directions of these four points are 
fixed, you may tell them that the point half-way between the 
south and east, is Southeast; between the north and east, is 
Northeast; between the north and west, is Northwest, and 
that the point half-way between the south and west, is South- 
west. 

The children, having learned the eight points now named, 
should be asked to name objects in the direction of each, be- 
ginning with those in the schoolroom, and passing to things 
in the school yard, and others at a distance from the school 
building; to name the direction in which they travel in com- 
ing from their homes to school, and in going from the school 
building to the Post-office, or to any other prominent point 
that may be known to all, or most of them; the object being to 
fasten firmly these first, and perhaps, most important lessons. 

Distance. — The idea of distance should next be intro- 
duced. In attempting this, see that the children are provided 
with rulers a foot long, marked into twelve equal spaces. Ask 
them to draw on the blackboard, by the aid of these rulers, 
lines a foot in length, six inches, three inches, one inch. They 
will soon see the relation of these lines to one another. 

A line three times the length of the ruler is a yard . Get 

them to draw lines a yard long, at first with the aid of the 
rulers, afterwards without, and see how nearly these lines will 
agree in length. They should also be asked to name objects 
in the school room, a yard long, a foot, half a foot, etc., and 
then measure the objects so as to test the accuracy of their 
guesses. 

If the blackboard is long enough, place on it a line a rod in 
length. This the children may measure and see how it com- 
pares with the one a yard long. Then let them measure off 
like distances in other parts of the room, using the rulers at 
first, but discarding them after a while, so that you may deter- 


IN GEOGRAPHY. 


9 


mine the correctness of the concepts which they are forming 
of these several distances. 

You can best impart the idea of a mile by naming some two 
objects which are that distance apart. These objects should 
be familiar to all in the class, and if they can be seen from the 
school room, it will be an advantage. In order that the chil- 
dren may have a correct notion of a mile, it is not at all neces- 
sary that they should be able to tell you, “A mile equals three 
hundred and twenty rods.” They may be able to tell you 
this and yet not really know what a mile is. Remember, the 
work before you is to teach ideas , and not a mere form of 
words which, in many instances, are meaningless and empty. 

Farm. — It may be that in the drawing class, or elsewhere, 
the children have already been taught form . If not, the sub- 
ject should be introduced here. Begin by making a straight 
line and placing near it a curved one. A vertical line should 
have for its neighbor a horizontal line. These may be fol- 
lowed by parallel lines, both straight and curved, and by ob- 
lique lines. 

It may be profitable at this point to review the work on dis- 
tance, which can be done by having these lines made of vari- 
ous lengths. 

The idea of angle should next be taught. Begin with the 
right angle, as this is the standard by which other kinds are 
determined and named. Show that the acute angle is sharper 
than the right angle, and the obtuse angle, blunter, hence 
the names. Let the pupils make several of each kind, and 
learn to name them rapidly. 

By connecting the free ends of the lines forming an angle^ 
a figure having three angles is formed. Show why the name 
triangle is given to this figure. Ask the pupils to point to 
each of the angles, and tell to which of the kinds it belongs.. 
They should make several triangles; some with right angles, 


IO 


\ 


PREPARATORY WORK 


others with obtuse angles, and still others with three acute 


Place a square on the blackboard, and get the children to 
see that its angles are right angles, and its sides, equal. 

Near the square place a rectangle , and ask the children 
to point out any difference they may see between the two 
figures. Have your class draw them, both on their slates and 
on the board, and name objects whose sides are squares, or rect- 
angles. 

Describe a circle on the blackboard. Teach that the line 
you have just made is the circumference, and that the part of 
the surface of the board bounded by this line is the circle. All 
points in the circumference are equidistant from the center of 
the circle. 

If you make these facts clear to your pupils, you will save 
them much confusion of ideas in after years. 


angles. 



SCHEME OF CHAPTER II. 


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f i. Idea of scale developed. 

! r i. On the blackboard, north 

side of room. 

I ~W~’ I • _ . 


2. Position of differ- 
ent sides shown. 


side of room. 

i • Slate on desk. 
2. Top of slate 
points north 
as the child- 
ren draw. 


2. On slate, i 


5 . Position of furniture. - 


3. Comparative length of sides, 
j 4. Doors and windows. j \ 

1. Teacher’s desk, stove, 
etc. 

2. Number of rows of 
desks. 

3. Number of desks in a 
row. 

4* Position of each pupil’s 
l desk. 

f 1. Judgment. 

Comparative length of sides. J 2 * Measurement. 

| 3. Scale fixed. 

(,4. Drawing. 

2. Position of gates, well, sidewalks, flower-beds, 
etc., shown on drawing. 

1. Direction. 

2. Where leading to. 

f 1. Homes of the children. 

{ 2. Post-office. 

3. Places of note. 1 3. Churches. 

4. Court House. 

5. Parks. 

1. Source. 

2. Mouth. 

3. Course. 

4. Right bank. 

1 5. Left bank. 

6. Island. 

7. Peninsula. 

8. Gulf or bay. 

9. Plain. 



LESSONS AROUND HOME. 


Flail of the Schoolroom — The children having mas- 
tered the ideas of direction, distance and form, are prepared to 
use them and should be required to do so in making a ground- 
plan of the schoolroom. This will consist of as many straight 
lines properly united as the room has sides. 

Before they can do this intelligently you must teach them 
the idea of scale , as used in geography. This is a delicate 
task and must be well accomplished if you hope for the best 
results thereafter. Tell the children that as you cannot draw, 
a line on the board as long as the room, you will let an inch 
on the board stand for a foot of the length of the room, so 
that if the room is thirty feet your drawing will be thirty 
inches. And if the room is twenty feet wide the width of the 
drawing will be twenty inches. 

In copying the drawing on their slates it will probably be 
necessary for the pupils to make a quarter or a half of an inch 
stand for an inch on the board. This, however, will cause no 
confusion if they once get the idea of scale clearly fixed. 

The north end or side of a room should be represented by 
the line next to the top of the slate, paper or blackboard; after 
which the position of the south, east and west sides will readily 
be determined. 

If circumstances permit, place the drawing on the north 
side of the room, so that in copying it the children must face in 
that direction. This will be an advantage. 

Having drawn the walls, ask the children to point out the 
proper position of the doors and windows. This they should 
do from actual measurement of the walls and of the drawings. 


IN GEOGRAPHY. 


13 


No doubt you could do this work more rapidly and ac- 
curately than they can. It is not for your benefit, however, 
but for theirs. This is one way of determining whether they 
have mastered the idea of scale or not and if they are observ- 
ing things for themselves, or depending on their teacher to 
observe for them — which is so often the case. 

Ask the children to indicate on the drawing the position of 
your desk, the stove and such other articles as are usually kept 
in the schoolroom. Let them show the number of rows of 
desks, the number of desks in a row, their own desks and 
those of their friends. 

TiLE SchDDl-yard. — As soon as the schoolroom with its 
furniture is drawn with a fair degree of accuracy, considering 
the age of the pupils, the school-yard may be sketched. This 
also should be drawn to scale. If necessary, in order to make 
room for the sketch of the school-yard on the slate, the school- 
room must now be drawn on a different scale from the one 
used before, as it and the yard should be on the same scale. 

On this sketch mark the position of the gate, well, walks, 
flower-beds, etc. 

Cover up the drawing that you assisted in placing on the 
blackboard and have the pupils reproduce it on the board from 
memory. Remove the covering and have them compare their 
sketch with yours, pointing out wherein theirs is faulty. 
Continue this work until satisfied with the results. 

SdjaCEIlt StPEEtS. — If your school is in the city, place 
on the sketch a few of the principal streets, beginning with that 
on which the school building stands. Note their direction, and 
if they lead to any place of importance, call attention to the 
fact. If members of the class live on these streets, give them 
the privilege of showing the position of their homes, Mark 
the location of a few of the more important buildings, such as 
the Post-office, Court House, and Churches, also the Parks. 


14 


PREPARATORY WORK 


How many streets it will be profitable to study and sketch, 
you must determine for yourself. There is danger of over- 
doing the matter, and keeping the pupils 'learning the names 
of unimportant streets, when they should be engaged in more 
desirable work. 

If you are teaching in the country, or in a country village, 
the children will aid you materially in deciding what to show on 
the sketch, as they are acquainted with all the important ob- 
jects in the vicinity, and will be ready to suggest their names. 
Make them your partners in the work, and you will find their 
interest in it increasing from day to day. 

River DP Creek. — But whether in city or country, be 
certain to call attention to any river or creek that may be in 
the neighborhood. It is by the banks of this stream they 
must study the Amazon, Ganges, Nile, and the other great 
rivers of the world, if they ever study them in the true sense 
of that term. It is not probable that many of them will ever 
see those streams, hence, if you would aid in forming proper 
conceptions of these, as well as of all others in foreign lands, 
this is your opportunity. Do not allow it to pass by unim- 
proved. If you do, those mighty rivers that receive the waters 
from the hills and distribute them to the plains, that gladden 
the inhabitants of many lands by assuring them of bountiful 
harvests, and that carry the commerce of nations on their bos- 
oms, may for years be nothing more to these children than 
crooked, black lines drawn across the map. 

By this home stream you can teach what is meant by the 
source of a river, the mouth of a river, the co7irse of a river, 
right bank of a river, the left bank , and the bed of a river. 
Here, also, you can help your pupils form proper notions of 
an island , pejiinsula, and gulf or bay . 

In the same vicinity, the flam and plateau can be studied 
to advantage. And the neighboring knoll , assisted by the 


IN GEOGRAPHY. 


15 


vivid description of the teacher, will grow into a mountain 
when necessary. 

Do not concern yourself greatly about the definitions of 
these terms at this stage of the work. Rather be solicitous 
about the ideas your pupils are acquiring. Are they such as 
will enable them in after years to form correct mental pictures 
of far-off lands and scenes? If so, the definitions will be given 
correctly at the proper time. Confusion of definitions is gen- 
erally due to confusion of ideas. 



o 




SCHEME OF CHAPTER III. 


Map of Township. 


Map of County. 


Map of State. 


1 


1. Shape. 

2. Size. 

3. Position of home city. 

4. Position of school. 

' 1. Direction from School. 

2. Where enter the Township. 

3. Where leave the Township. 

4. Course. 

1. Number. 

2. Where lead to. 

7. Other cities or villages. 


C/3 

J-t 

<D 

> 


< 


»o 

6. Railroads. 




1. Shape. 

2. Number of Townships. 

3. Position of home Township. 

4. County j 1. Why so called. 

Seat. ( 2. Direction from home. 

) i. Direction from home. 

2. Course. 

3. Comparative size. 

r 3 ( 1. Number. 

6. Railroads, j 2> Where i ea d to. 

^ 7. Other cities or villages. 

r 1. Shape. 

2. Fix boundaries. 

3. Number of Counties. 

4. Position of home County, 
f 1. Number. 

2. Source. 

3. Course. 

4. Flow into what. 

5. Comparative size. 

£ n 1 j l - Why so called, 
o. <^api a . ^ 3b Direction from home. 

.3 3 ( 1. Number. 

7. Railroads. | 2< where lead to _ 

8. Important cities. 

(16) 


•I 


5. Rivers. < 



TtLE Township. — Place on the blackboard a diagram a 
foot square. Tell the children that this represents the town- 
ship in which they live and that it is six miles square.* Ask 
them to represent it on their slates or paper by a diagram six 
inches square. On what scale is the township drawn on the 
board? On the slates? 

Indicate the position of the home city in the township and 
the position of the school in the city. In what part of the city 
is the school? In what direction from the school is the river? 
Has any one of the boys been fishing in it? Did he catch any 
fish? 

By means of a sharp, bright line show where the river en- 
ters the township, the direction in which it flows and where it 
passes out. Let the children draw a similar line on their 
slates. 

Mark the position and direction of the railroads that pass 
through the city. Do the children know of any other towns 
on these railroads? If they do, show their position if in the 
township. Should they be outside and of some importance, 
promise that at some future time you will map them. 

This is a good time to introduce the word map. The dia- 
gram on the board which the children have copied on their 
slates is a map. It shows the shape of the township, the posi- 
tion of the city in which the children live and possibly of some 
others.' It also shows the position of the rivers and railroads 


*lf the home township is not a square and of the size here described, modify 
the diagram so that it will show the correct shape and size. 


18 


PREPARATORY WORK 


with their direction. But it does not show an actual city with 
streets, parks and houses. Its railroads and rivers are simply 
lines and its pond or lake, if there is any, is only a portion of 
the board surrounded by an irregular line. 

Impress upon your pupils the difference between the thing 
and its symbol. On the map are only symbols. 

TllE H min ty, — Adjoining the township now drawn are 
other townships, beyond these are still others and all are prob- 
ably of the same shape and size. By grouping a number of 
these townships and, it may be, parts of others together, we 
form a county. 

Show on your sketch the number of townships and parts of 
townships in your county. Indicate the home township and 
the city in which you live. Locate the County-seat and ex- 
plain to your pupils what is meant by the term. Show one or 
two of the principal rivers in the county. Are they naviga- 
ble P Do they furnish water-power ? What articles are man- 
ufactured along their banks P 

Mark the railroads learned in the township and show where 
they leave the county. Three or four other cities may be 
taken in addition to the county-seat and the home city. 

If there are any hills in the county note their position, espe- 
cially if in the neighborhood of the schoolhouse. 

Do not attempt too much blit do well what you attempt . 

The StatEi — There is much difference of opinion among 
good teachers as to the advisability of teaching the geography 
of the state at this stage of the children’s progress. If you 
decide that it is best for your pupils to know something of the 
state as a whole before leaving this preparatory work, the fol- 
lowing plan is offered for your consideration: 

“Our county is bounded by other counties, and these by still 
others, etc., etc. There are 102 counties in our State. * 


* Illinois* 


IN GEOGRAPHY. 


19 


These differ greatly in shape and size. Who knows the shape 
of our county? How does it rank in size, among the largest, 
or the smallest? We will now make a map of our State, so 
that we may learn its shape. 

You may all take your places at the blackboard. As high 
on the board as you can reach conveniently, draw a horizontal, 
dotted line, fifteen inches in length, for the northern boundary . 
North of this line is the State of Wisconsin. There is neither 
mountain range nor river between the two States. For most 
of the distance there is a road, half of which lies in either 
State; so that a person standing in the middle can have one 
foot in Illinois and the other in Wisconsin. There is nothing 
about it, however, to indicate that it is the boundary between 
two States. The line on the board simply shows the shape of 

the north end of the one State, and of the south end of the 

* 

other. 

From the east end of this line draw a continuous line five 
and a half inches in length, or a little over a third as long as 
the one already drawn, and extending east of south. This line 
is somewhat curved, and represents the shore line of that por- 
tion of Lake Michigan which borders on Illinois. 

From the south end of the continuous line, and extending 
south, draw a dotted line three times its length. East of this 
line is Indiana. 

South from the south end of the line just drawn the two 
States are separated by the Wabash River which rises in the 
State east of Indiana, flows southwest, in the main, until it 
becomes the boundary line, and then west of south to the 
Ohio River. The distance from the point at which the Wa- 
bash begins to form the boundary, to its mouth, equals two- 
thirds of the distance from that point to the lake. 

Draw a line nine inches long and extending west from the 
mouth of the Wabash. The west end of this line marks a 
point in the Mississippi River. Parallel to this line and equi- 


20 PREPARATORY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 

distant from it and the northern boundary of the State, draw 
another, twenty-two inches in length; this will pass through 
the widest part of the State, and its west end will mark an- 
other point in the Mississippi. 

Having three points to guide you, you may now sketch the 
Mississippi River, being careful to show its principal bends, so 
that the west side of the State may be properly shaped. 

Finish the outline of the State by sketching the portion of 
the Ohio River that flows along its border. Notice that this 
river separates Illinois from Kentucky, and that the Mississip- 
pi separates it from Iowa and Missouri.” 

The pupils will find it more profitable, and easier, to sketch 
at first from dictation as indicated above, and afterwards from 
measurements and observations by themselves, than by any 
system of triangulation or squares with which the writer is ac- 
quainted. It takes about as much time and labor to make the 
“frame work” as it does to make the sketch; and when made it 
aids but little. Besides, such drawing has but slight educational 
value; there is too much machinery about it. 

Mark the position of the home city. Home is the place the 
children know best, and by which they will locate all others. 
Place two or three of the principal rivers of the State on the 
map, showing their direction, and into what they flow. Lo- 
cate the county-seat, and in addition, the capital and a few of 
the most important cities. 

If the home railroads pass to any of these cities, indicate the 
fact on the sketch. 

This will make the map full enough for the present, and af- 
ford you a good foundation on which to build hereafter. 


Object Lessons. 


SCHEME OF CHAPTER IV. 


i. Purpose. 


On Mining and 
Minerals. 


f i. To prepare pupils to inter- 
pret the map correctly. 

* 2. To enable pupils to appreci- 
ate definitions. 

f i. Found in what part 
I of the State. 


i 


i. CoaM 


3. On Manufactures.^ 


4. On Climate. 


2. How obtained. 

3. Its importance. 

[2. Other minerals, 
f f 1. Manufactures 

1. Meaning of \ 2. Manufacturer 

[3. Manufactory. 

2. Articles manufactured near 
home. 

' 1. Houses. 

1. Cold day leads 2. Food, 
to talk on cold^ 3. Dress, 
countries. | 4. Manner 

l of travel. 

1. Houses. 

2. Food. 

wr j 3. Dress. 

W arm day I 0 ^ . 

, , , , 1 4. r ood eas- 

leads to talk ^ ^ . 

‘ lly ob- 
tained. 
Produc- 
tions. 

1. Meaning of term. 

5. On Agriculture. J 2. Articles cultivated near home. 

| 3 * Articles cultivated in foreign 
L countries, 
i. Meaning of term. 

6. On Commerce. * 2. How carried on. 

[3. Benefits. 


i 


on warm 
countries. 




(21) 


CHAPTER IV. 


OBJECT LESSONS. 

A pleasant and profitable way of closing the Preparatory 
Geography is by a series of object lessons on common things. 
If the topics are wisely chosen and given in an interesting 
manner they will prove of great value. It is not necessary 
that they should follow each other in any special order. The 
order should be determined largely by circumstances. The 
purpose is to prepare the pupils to appreciate definitions which 
they will afterwards meet in their text-books, and which 
without this preparation would be to them for years nothing 
but words. 

Mining and Minerals I — The building of a coal fire 
will suggest several lessons on this topic. The coal which 
keeps the schoolroom and the homes of so many of the chil- 
dren warm in winter is a mineral. If there is no coal-mine in 
the neighborhood, it may be necessary to tell them that coal is 
obtained by digging into the side of the hills or down into the 
ground several hundred feet. The men who dig the coal are 
called miners and the digging is called mining. 

Picture to your pupils these miners working underground, 
each with a small lamo fastened to his hat. Describe the 
streets and alleys they are forming, the pillars left to support 
the roof, the animals hauling the coal to the opening or shaft 
and the method of raising the coal to the surface. 

If coal is found in your State show on the sketch the limits 
of the coal-fields. 

How many kinds of coal are there? Are they all found in 
your State? If not, which kind is found? With which kind 
is the schoolroom heated ? &c. What is charcoal ? 

(22) 


PREPARATORY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


2 3 


These items will interest your class and easily lead to other 
minerals, the manner of mining them and their uses. 

Manufactures. — One who makes anything is said to 
manufacture it, and he is a manufacturer . The blacksmith 
makes horseshoes, wagon-tires and other articles, hence he is a 
manufacturer. The men who make wagons, plows, reapers, 
mowers, pumps, etc., are manufacturers. Some make carpets, 
calicoes, silks and other kinds of cloth; they, too, are manufac- 
turers. The buildings in which the articles are made are 
manufactories . 

Are the men who make boots and shoes manufacturers? 
Those who make tables and chairs? What articles are manu- 
factured in your neighborhood? 


Climate — Excellent opportunities for teaching the idea 
of climate will present themselves through the school year. 
A cold winter’s day is a suitable time to state that in some 
countries the most of the days are as cold as that. The peo- 
ple dress in skins in order to keep. warm. Many of them live 
in snow houses much of the time and travel in sleds drawn by 
dogs. It is too cold to cultivate the land, consequently the 
people have no corn, wheat, oats or vegetables except what 
little may be sent them from other countries. They live 
chiefly on fish and meats of different kinds. 

On a hot day you can call attention to the fact that some 
countries have hot weather throughout the year. The people 
do not need warm houses, and wear but little clothing. Vari- 
ous kinds of crops are produced in abundance and with little 
labor. Many food plants and fruits grow without being 
cared for by man. The children never coast nor skate, nor 
have the pleasure of building snow forts or of snowballing one 
another. 





24 


PREPARATORY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY 


Agriculture. — The man who plows the ground, puts in 
the seed and harvests the crops is engaged in agriculture , or 
farming. 

What are the principal crops cultivated in this neighbor- 
hood? In this County? In this State? Does coffee grow in 
this state? How does it grow? From what is sugar made? 
Does that grow in this State? Have you seen any of it? 
How does tea grow? Does it grow in this State? Where 
does it grow? 

CcmmerCE. — The children will now see that we use 
many articles such as coffee, tea, sugar, lemons, oranges, &c., 
that do not grow in our country. The same is true of some 
of our clothing and of much of the furniture in our homes; 
the materials of which they are made are not produced in our 
State. Yet we should not like to do without them. So we 
sell what we do not need of the articles produced and made in 
our State, and buy the other necessary articles from men who 
bring them from other states and countries. This buying and 
selling is co?nmcrce . 

These few object lessons will suggest others on the same or 
kindred topics to the thoughtful teacher. If judiciously man- 
aged they will prove to be excellent appetizers for the fuller 
meal which is to follow, causing pupils to anticipate it with 
pleasure and partake of it with a zest and heartiness to which 
they would otherwise be strangers. 

Note: Monteith’s Easy Lessons in Popular Science con- 

tains much valuable matter for this class of work. 



. Continents. 2. Earth. 


SCHEME OF CHAPTER I. 


1. Introductory Remarks. 


j 1. Leading to definition. 
( 2. On use of text-book. 


f i. Shape. 

i 

2. Motion. 


Spherical. A few simple proofs. 

( 1. On its axis — Day and night. 

j 2. Around the sun — Change of seasons* 

> 

1. New World, or f 1. N. America. 
Western Hemisphere. ( 2. S. America. 


3. Land. 


i 

l 


4. Water. 


1 


i. 


2. Old World, or 
Eastern Hemisphere 


3* 

4* 

' 1. Atlantic. 
2. Pacific. 

1. Oceans. 3. Indian. 


< 


2. Seas. 

3. Gulfs. 

4. Bays. 


4. Arctic. 

5 . Antarctic. 


Europe. 

Asia. 

Africa. 

Australia. 


CO 


f I- 




Compared. 


r 1. Size. Rank of each. 
2. Position. 


1 3- Sha P e - 
! 

[ 4. Contour 


1. Resemblances. 

2. Differences. 

1. Principal Projections. 

2. Principal Indentations. 


( 1. N. America and S. America. 
r 1. In } 2. Europe and Africa, 
pairs. ( 3. Asia and Australia. 


V. 2. 


Grouped 


2. In 
threes. 


f 1. Three 
Northern. 

2. Three 
Southern. 


1. N. America. 

2. Europe. 

3. Asia. 

1. S. America. 

2. Africa. 

3. Australia. 


( 2 5 ) 


PART II. 


ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTER I. 


THE EARTH AS A WHOLE. 

With this chapter begins what may be properly termed 
Geography. In city schools the children are likely to have 
had the work treated of in Part I; but in country schools they 
are more likely not to. The forced migratory habits of the 
average teacher in the rural districts lead him to conclude 
that, although this work is in itself valuable, and may profita- 
bly be done in the city, in the country it is impossible. Hence, 
it is seldom that he attempts to teach anything not found in 
the text-book. Indeed, he would regard such an attempt as 
presumptuous. The book is to him all-sufficient, and he is 
often more anxious to teach that, than he is the subject of which 
it treats. But this is, not true of all. Many of the school- 
houses which dot our prairies and hill-sides are occupied by 
noble men and women who are doing as intelligent and effec- 
tive teaching as is being done in any city school in the land. 
All honor to them ! 

USE Df tllE Text -tmok. — Still, in the average country 
school, it is seldom that anything is done in geography before 
the children are supplied with the text-books. Consequently 

(26) 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


27 


the teacher can only introduce, from day to day, such topics 
from the preparatory work as are necessary to a proper under- 
standing of the lesson. Not to use the books would be heresy 
in the estimation of many of the parents, and might be discour- 
aging to the children. 

They have come to school the first morning of the term 
somewhat elated at the thought of beginning a new study. 
They have been examining the maps and pictures, and have 
concluded that this book is “nicer” than any they have had 
heretofore and much more likely to give them pleasure. Do 
not spoil this anticipation by telling them that they are not 
ready to use the books, and will not be for a year to come, as 
they must take the Preparatory Geography first. But go to 
work, determined to do the best you can under the circumstan- 
ces, and to improve the circumstances themselves, as the year 
progresses. 

Neither must you render their introduction to the study 
spiritless by assigning as the first lesson, column 1, page 1, 
simply because it comes first. A better way is to begin with 
a pleasant talk about the subject — its beauties and benefits. 
But do not talk at random. The best extemporaneous talks 
are those that are carefully prepared beforehand. Lead grad- 
ually to the definition of geography, by giving the pupils to 
understand that the study tells about the earth, its shape, move- 
ments, countries, people, etc. 

SJiape of ttLE E artll. — In attempting to give the class a 
just idea of the shape of the earth, it is very desirable to use a 
globe, although a ball, an orange, or an apple will answer the 
purpose; either represents the earth in shape. By the earth 
we mean the world with all its land and water, cities, farms, 
etc. No doubt, questions will arise as to why the the earth 
does not seem round. In answer to such, cover all but a small 
part of the surface of the globe and ask if that seems round. 


28 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


Why not? Owing to the same reason the earth does not 
appear round, as the part of its surface that we can see at any 
time, compared with the whole, is much smaller than the part 
of the globe left uncovered is of its entire surface. If this is 
not sufficient, have the children read a few of the simplest 
proofs of the earth’s rotundity given in their books, unless bet- 
ter occur to you, but do not enter into long, philosophical ex- 
planations, which are exceedingly unphilosophical, consider- 
ing the attainments of the class. For the same reason say 
nothing about the earth’s oblateness at this time. “The flat- 
tening at the poles” is a favorite topic with many teachers. They 
never weary of airing their knowledge of the subject both in 
season and out of season — generally out of season, showing 
conclusively that the earth is not the only thing flattened at 
the poles. Your opportunity for teaching this truth will ar- 
rive in due time; be strong enough to wait till then. 

MDtinns Qi the Earth. — Having fixed the form of the 
earth, pass at once to its motions, by making the somewhat 
startling announcement that the sun stands still and that its 
seeming motion is caused by the actual motion of the earth. 
The earth rotates on its axis. The earth’s axis is the line on 
which it rotates. It is not an axle, but if you are not careful 
the children will not see the difference between the two terms. 

The foies are the ends of the axis. One is the north pole, 
the other the south foie. Evidently the axis must extend 
north and south. The directions east and west should be de- 
termined, on the globe, and a thorough review of the whole 
work on direction should be instituted here. If the subject is 
now brought before the class for the first time, the method* al- 
ready described should be resorted to. 

The earth rotates on its axis from west to east. Show that 
to this rotation are due day and night. By letting some sta- 


*Part I, Chap. I. 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


29 


tionary object represent the sun (unless very inconvenient it 
should be larger than the globe) and causing the globe to ro- 
tate slowly on its axis, the children can be made to understand 
that about half of the earth’s surface is in the light and half in 
the darkness continually ; that these halves are constantly 
changing as the sunlight and shadow chase each other around 
the earth. The rotation of the earth on its axis is called its 
daily, or diurnal motion. Why? Show why the sun seems 
to rise in the east and set in the west. 

The earth not only rotates on its axis causing day and night, 
but it also revolves around the sun; the two motions are con- 
stantly going on. The revolution of the earth around the sun 
is called its annual motion. Why? It is well enough to state 
that to this motion is due, in a measure, the change of seasons. 
But it is not wise to attempt an explanation of this phenome- 
non. It is best to defer Astronomical Geography, as a whole, 
until the end of the course, bringing in only what may be 
needed as the work progresses. 

Land, and WatEP. — Call attention to the different colors 
on the globe. The red or brown represents the part of the 
surface that is land, the blue or green the part that is water. 
But these colors do not always represent the same things on 
all globes. The land may be represented by any color, and 
so may the water. Let the pupils examine the globe carefully 
and tell you what relative portion of its surface represents 
land and what portion water. 

Ths HEmispherES. — Being able to distinguish the land 
from the water, they probably will notice that nearly all of 
the former is in two large masses. One of these is called the 
New World, the other the Old World. Tell them in a few 
words why these names are used. Introduce and define the 
term hemisphere , using the book as far as you think advisable? 
but not becoming its slave. Lead your pupils to see the dif- 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


3 ° 

ferences between the two worlds both in size and shape. 
They will observe that the land in the New World or West- 
ern Hemisphere, extends from northwest to southeast, and is 
long and narrow; while in the Old World, or Eastern Hemi- 
sphere, nearly all the land is crowded together. Introduce 
and define the terms ocean and sea; name a few of these bodies, 
locating them with reference to the land and to each other. 

TtLE CnntillBllts. — Observe that the New World is cut 
nearly in two; each of the pieces is a continent . Define con- 
tinent, and teach that there are six of them. You will find 
the number convenient, and in accordance with the teachings 
of the best geographers. These two are connected by a nar- 
row strip of land called an isthmus . What is the name of this 
isthmus? Of each of the continents? How are they situated 
with regard to each other? Do they look any alike? Point 
out all the resemblances you see. Do you see any differences? 
What are they? 

□ utlillB Maps, — This part of the work is very important 
and should not be done too hurriedly. And in order that it 
may be done to the best advantage a large outline map of the 
world should be hung in sight of the class. Nearly all schools 
are supplied with such. If yours is not, a few yards of muslin 
and fifty cents invested in ink and a camel’s-hair brush, with 
a little perseverance on your part will enable you to make one 
that will answer the purpose. For the value of a map in 
teaching does not depend upon its costliness nor upon the mul- 
titude of places marked on it. On the contrary, the fact that 
it has nothing upon it but what is to be learned is a positive 
advantage. Try it. 

ScalE. — When making the change from the globe to the 
outline map review carefully the subject of scale . Children 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


3i 


are liable to suppose that the map of a continent must always 
and in all places be of the same size, since the continent itself 
does not vary. Guard against this wrong notion or it will 
cause confusion. 

Teach that the northern part of the continent or country is 
towards the top of the map; also that there is no connection 
between the elevation of a place and its location on the map. 
You will find this necessary, as pupils, even the larger ones, al- 
most invariably say they are going down a river when going 
towards its source, if it happens to flow towards the north. 

Camparis an af Continents.— Return to the New 
World and make the comparison of the continents as full as 
the ability of your pupils will justify. The triangular form, 
wide at the north, narrowing towards the south, the situation 
of the longest side in each, the shortest side, the great bend in 
the west side will attract the attention of the children. Aim 
to fix in their minds a correct picture of these continents* 
With such a picture firmly fastened in the memory they are 
prepared to enter intelligently at the proper time upon the 
further study of the Americas. Without it they will only be 
groping in the dark. Geography is jyre-eminently the study 
of j pictures , and success in teaching it depends largely upon 
the use of the imagination. The other four continents should 
be studied in like manner. 

The six continents may now be arranged in pairs — a north- 
ern and a southern one in each. Let the pupils name those in 
each pair and point out in which pair the continents look most 
alike, in which least, which one of each pair is the larger, which 
is the largest of the six, the next largest, etc. But while hold- 
ing them for the rank of each continent as regards size, they 
should not be required to learn the areas, as such work would 
be worse than meaningless at this time. 


3 2 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


Gkrairping nf C□ntiIlEIltS , — You can next put the con- 
tinents in two groups of three each — a northern and a south- 
ern. The pupils should then be asked to name those in each 
grou]), the middle one of each, and the direction of any one 
from any other. Let them also name and locate a few of the 
principal islands, peninsulas, gulfs or bays belonging to each 
continent, defining each new term as introduced, and reviewing 
the others as opportunities offer. 

Definitions. — See to it that the definitions are not empty 
words, to be forgotten in less time than it takes to learn them. 
The teacher who does not earnestly strive to lead the thoughts 
of his pupils from the definition to the thing defined, from the 
symbol to the thing symbolized, cannot be too strongly con- 
demned. With great propriety may his pupils cry out in 
agony of spirit, “O, wretched beings that we are! Who shall 
deliver us from the body of this death!” 

U Blue df Genuine Curiosity. — The children are 
likely to be agreeably surprised by the frequent occurrence of 
the number three. The three pairs of continents, three 
continents in a group, the three great gulfs on the west- 
ern coasts of the southern continents, the three large 
peninsulas on the south of Asia, three south of Europe^ 
and the three great seas in the center of the Old World, 
will be likely to excite their curiosity. And who does 
not know that the awakening of genuine curiosity is 
of great value in educational processes? This curiosity if di- 
rected wisely will beget mental activity, without which but 
little can be effected. It frequently happens in the experience 
of every teacher that the dead must be brought to life before 
the subject can be taught with any profit to the pupil or pleas- 
ure to the teacher. 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


33 


Feasibility and Practicalness cf the Work. — 

But you ask, can the children at this point in their advance- 
ment form even an approximately correct mental picture of 
the earth. The answer is yes. It is no harder to do so than 
it is to form an equally accurate picture of Illinois or of some 
of its counties. Yet some teachers, who may reject this work 
as impracticable, will labor earnestly in aiding their pupils to 
form a mental picture of their county and state. And when 
formed, these pictures, as the basis of future work, have not the 
value that the picture of the earth as a whole has. This is the 
most practical work that can be done, as it is the foundation 
upon which all true study of geography must rest. If a boy 
can remain in school but a few years it is of far more import- 
ance to him to have a good frame- work around which to ar- 
range the many items which he will gather from reading 
works of travel, the leading periodicals, and from various other 
sources than to have a large number of disconnected facts 
which he manages to retain in a chaotic condition until he 
leaves school and then forgets. The latter is what, as teach- 
ers, we have mainly concerned ourselves about heretofore, be- 
cause of our mistaken notion as to the practical. It is time 
there was a change. 



North America 


2 . Relief. 


i. Contour. 


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(34) 


SCHEME OF CHAPTER II. 


4- Central America. 

5. The West Indies. 

6. Danish America. 


North America Continued 


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( 35 ) 


CHAPTER II. 


NORTH AMERICA. 

Contour. — Review carefully what has already been said 
about North America, and study more carefully its co7itonr . 
Its principal peninsulas are Alaska on the northwest, Labra- 
dor on the northeast, Nova Scotia on the east, Florida and Yu- 
catan on the southeast, and Lower California on the west. 
The chief gulfs are Hudson Bay, Gulf of St, Lawrence, Gulf 
of Mexico, and the Gulf of California. 

These projections and indentations are all that it is advisable 
to take at present. They are the ones that give character to 
the coast-line, and the object now is to learn that. The islands 
of Newfoundland and Vancouver are so near the mainland 
that it is well to notice them in this connection, and observe 
their situation with reference to each other and to the Gulf of 
St. Lawrence. 

Relief.- — Explain to the class what is meant by relief in 
geography ; and if the maps in use are colored to show differ- 
ence in elevation, call attention to the fact. 

The Pacific H ighlands consist of a high plateau which ex- 
tends from the Arctic Ocean to the southern end of the conti- 

«• 

nent. Its general elevation increases towards the south, the 
highest average being in southern Mexico; from there it de- 
scends to the Isthmus of Panama. The width of the plateau 
varies from one and a half to three times the width of Illinois 
at the widest part. On it are several mountain ranges , the 
principal ones being the Rocky Mountains, Sierra Nevada, and 
the Cascade. The highest peaks are Mt. St. Elias, Popocata- 
petl, Mt. Brown, Mt. Shasta, Mt. Lincoln, and Pike’s Peak. 

(30 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


37 


The Atlantic Highlands extend along the Atlantic Ocean, 

at a short distance from it, and are not near so high or so wide as 

those on the west. In the north they consist of several discon- 

•/ 

nected groups, and in the south of well marked ranges. 
Of these the Alleghany and Blue Ridge are the principal ones, 
and the White Mountains form the leading group in the 
north. The most elevated points are the Black Dome, Mt. 
Washington, and Mt. Marcy. 

Lying between these two systems of highlands is a vast plain 
extending from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico. 
Through its center passes the Height of Land connecting the 
H ighlands of the Atlantic and Pacific; it forms the water - 
shed between the rivers flowing to the north and those that 
flow south. The Height of Land is but slightly elevated in 
any part of its course, and in some places is so low as to be 
hardly distinguishable. 

DrainagB. — When the pupils have mastered the relief of 
the continent, they will have little or no trouble in understand- 
ing its drainage . They will see that the direction of the 
mountains determines that of the rivers. Make sure that 
they do. 

The Pacific Slope is that portion of the continent whose 
waters flow into the Pacific Ocean; its principal rivers are the 
Yukon, Columbia, and Colorado. 

The Atlantic Slope lies east of the Appalachian or Atlantic 
Highlands, and its rivers flow into the Atlantic Ocean. The 
leading ones are the Hudson, Delaware, Susquehanna, Poto- 
mac, James, and Savannah. Are they long or short? Why? 

The Arctic Slope extends north from the Height of Land; 
its chief river is the Mackenzie. The Great Bear, Great 
Slave, and Winnepeg are its three most important lakes. 

The Mississippi Basin includes all the land drained by the 
Mississippi River ancj its tributaries; its principal rivers are 


38 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


the Mississippi, Missouri, Ohio, Tennessee, Arkansas and 
Red. 

By the St. Lawrence Basin is meant all the land whose wa- 
ters are carried to the ocean by the St. Lawrence River. The 
rivers in this basin, with the exception of the one which gives 
it its name, are not of sufficient importance to demand much 
attention at present; but its lakes are the most important in the 
world. Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario 
constitute over one half the fresh water of the globe; and the 
first is the largest body of fresh water in the world. 

Drill thoroughly on this work. Do not leave it until con- 
vinced that the class has mastered it. Thorough work here 
will make what is to follow bright. 

Sketching. — To aid in fastening the work let the pupils 
use the chalk freely. Do not hold them for every little bend 
and turn in the coast-line, and so discourage them. They can 
by reasonable study and practice acquire power to sketch a 
short piece of coast each day, showing the projections and in- 
dentations which they have learned; and in a few days they 
will be able to draw the continent as a whole. 

A heavy line nearly parallel to the Pacific and a short dis- 
tance inland, may represent the Pacific Highlands. Another 
drawn near the Atlantic will represent the Appalachian Sys- 
tem or the Atlantic Highlands. A third, connecting these two 
will mark the position and direction of the Height of Land. 
Let the pupils now point out each of the great drainage systems, 
reciting the rivers and lakes in each. 

''Molding,” — You will find it profitable to introduce 
“molding” at this point, A small quantity of foundry sand, a 
table with upturned edges, and a few shallow tin pans are all 
the necessary appliances. If it is not convenient to get foun- 
dry sand, common sand thoroughly sifted will answer. By 
being slightly moistened, it can be managed so as to show the 
outline and vertical forms. 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


39 


The writer has a friend who sends her class out into the 
school yard, and has the boys and girls, with spade in hand, 
mark out peninsulas, islands, continents, etc., showing relief 
and drainage. She says the results are generally satisfactory. 
Have you tried this plan, or something similar? Why not? 

Political G-Bcgrapliy. — The countries of North Amer- 
ica in the order of their importance, are: The United States, 

British America, Mexico, Central America, the West Indies, 
and Danish America. Our country is the United States. It 
is situated in the middle of the continent and reaches from the 
Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific. It is hounded on the north by 
British America which is about the same size; on the south by 
Mexico, which is smaller, and by the Gulf of Mexico. 

British America, although as large as the United States, is not 
nearly so important, the northern half of it being so cold and 
barren that but few people live there. The southern part of 
the country has a climate resembling that of the northern part 
of ours, hence the crops are about the same. Most of the peo- 
ple dress as we do, and speak the same language. The prin- 
cipal river is the St. Lawrence to which reference has already 
been made. The principal cities are Ottawa, the capital; Mon- 
treal, the largest city ; and Quebec, which is strongly fortified. 

Mexico, being south of us, has a much warmer climate than 
we have, especially in the lowlands bordering on Gulf of Mex- 
ico and the Pacific Ocean. The high plateau which forms the 
largest part of the country has a very pleasant climate. (Be 
prepared to show the effect of altitude upon climate.) The 
country produces all kinds of crops that ours does, and some 
that we cannot profitably cultivate. Its mountains and hills 
are rich in gold, silver, and mercury, large quantities of which 
are mined annually. The people speak the Spanish language, 
and differ considerably from us in dress and looks. The prin- 
cipal cities are Mexico, the capital; and Vera Cruz, the leading 
seaport. 


40 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


Next on the south is Central America, consisting of six 
countries, which, taken together, are much smaller than Mex- 
ico. The climate is hot, and the crops are such as are common 
to all warm countries. They differ more from our crops than 
do those of the other countries of the continent. The people 
speak the Spanish language and resemble the Mexicans in 
looks and dress. 

South of the United States, and east of Mexico and Central 
America, are the West Indies, consisting of about one thous- 
and islands. Some of these are very important, especially 
Cuba, from which we receive large quantities of sugar, oranges, 
lemons, pine-apples, and tobacco. Havana is the principal 
city, and is situated on the west end of the island of Cuba. 

Northeast of British America is Danish America, consisting 
of Greenland and Iceland. These are of so little importance 
to us or to the world at large, that they need receive 
but little attention at present. But if you feel that you must 
do more than is here indicated, you can notice the extreme 
cold, and the great efforts the inhabitants have to make to ob- 
tain a livelihood. Their condition in this respect may be con- 
trasted with that of the inhabitants of the West Indies. 

You will find it profitable to drill on this work until the 
class is able to begin at either end of the continent and name 
rapidly the countries in their order, giving the few facts here 
suggested about each. Doubtless some will regard the work 
as too meager. It is all, however, that it is advisable to give 
at this time, and more than many classes now get as the re- 
sult of weeks of study upon those countries. After a while, 
when the pupils have acquired a knowledge of the geography 
of their own country, and in so doing have grown strong, it 
may be well to take them over this ground again. For the 
present, the work is full enough. 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


4 * 


D Efinitinns. — Teach these definitions: 

A great circle of the earth is one that divides it into two 
equal parts. 

A small circle of the earth is one that divides it into two un- 
equal parts. 

The equator is a gi*eat circle of the earth perpendicular to 
its axis. 

Parallels are small circles of the earth parallel to the equa- 
tor 

Meridian circles are great circles of the earth passing through 
the poles. 

Meridians are semi-circumferences of meridian circles, ter- 
minating at the poles. 

Latitude is distance north or south of the equator 

Longitude is distance east or west from any given meridan. 

Explain to the class what is meant by climate, and show 
that the climate of any place depends chiefly on its distance 
from the equator and its altitude. 


The United States. 


SCHEME OF CHAPTER III. 


1. Boundaries. 

2. Relief. 

3. Climate. 


f 1. Mineral. 




j: 

r -« 

• r-* 
4—i 

CJ 

•— * 

Oh 


1. Gold. 

2. Silver. 

3. Lead. 

-j 4. Coppei. 

5. Iron, 
j 6. Coal. 

[7. Petroleum. 

' 1. Corn. 

2. Wheat. 

3. Cotton. 

4. Oats. 

2. Agricultural. -j 

7. Tobacco. 

8. Rice. 

9. Sugar-cane. 

10. Potatoes. 


I 


Sweet. 
Irish. 

1. Farming Implements. 

2. Cotton Goods. 

3. W oolen Goods. 


3. Manufactured. 1 , i- .•n' 1 T • 

0 | 4. Malt and distilled Liquors. 

5. Iron ware of all sorts. 

6. Machinery. 


5. Government. Federal Republic. 


V. 


6. Divisions. ^ 


1. The Northeastern, or New England 

States. 

2. The Middle States. 

3. The Southern States. 

rr»u ^ . 1 Oi. i. ( 1. Eastern Division. 

4. JL he Central States. 3 nr . t^* * * 

^ ( 2. WesternDivision. 

5. The Western States. 

6. The Territories. 

7. The District of Columbia. 

(42) 


CHAPTER III. 


THE UNITED STATES. 

Review. — The boundaries of the U. S. have already been 
named, but it will be advisable to review the work. More or 
less reviewing should be done every day, instead of putting it 
off until the last two or three weeks of the term, as some do. 

Importance cf Ccntmir and Relief. — The relief of 
the country should next be studied. Considerable has already 
been said about the importance of the study of contour and re- 
lief, but none too much. When the children are older and 
have advanced far enough in their work to warrant it, they 
can easily be led to see the influence exerted by the contour of 
of a country upon its civilization and progress. It is not wise 
however, to advance this thought yet; but you should bear it in 
mind. You must see the end from the beginning , if you would 
do intelligent work. And right here is one of the weak places 
with many teachers; they frequently see neither end nor be- 
ginning. Their vision is limited to the lesson of the hour, and 
many do not even know that as well as they expect their pu- 
pils to recite it. 

But while it is not wise at present to refer to the contour of 
a country as a factor in its civilization, it is perfectly safe to 
show the children the importance of relief. They should have 
the fact thoroughly impressed upon their minds that on the 
surface of a country depend, in a large measure, its climate, 
soil, crops, and the principal industrial pursuits of the people; 
the dependence should be made clear. 

ClimatE. — The climate of the United States is temperate, 
but is much warmer in the southern part than in the northern. 

( 43 ) 


44 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


Productions. —The principal crops in the south are cot- 
ton, rice, sugar-cane, tobacco, corn, sweet-potatoes, etc.; in the 
central and northern parts corn, wheat, oats, barley, rye, to- 
bacco, Irish potatoes, etc,, are the leading productions. Did 
you ever see any Irish potatoes? Why so called? The por- 
tion of the country occupied by the Pacific Highlands is valua- 
ble mainly for its minerals, of which gold and silver are the 
principal ones. The Mississippi Basin and the Atlantic High- 
lands are rich in coal and iron, which are mined in large quan- 
tities. Copper, lead, and petroleum are also found in several 

Manufactures. — Manufactures are carried on to some 
extent in nearly all parts of the country, but most extensively 
in the northeast. They consist mainly of farming implements, 
cotton goods, woolen goods, malt and distilled liqours, iron 
ware of all sorts, machinery, etc. 

Let the pupils point out on the map the parts of the country 
which produce much cotton, tobacco, rice, wheat, corn, gold, 
silver, coal, iron, copper, lead, etc. If they have molded a 
map of the country, the interest in the recitation may be en- 
hanced 4>y placing the different grains, minerals, etc., on the 
parts of the country in which they are produced. 

G-DVErnmEUt, — The United States, at present consists of 
thirty-eight States, ten Territories, and one Federal District. 
The people of the different States choose men to represent 
them in making the laws for the whole country. These men 
meet at Washington City, in the District of Columbia. The 
city is the capital of the nation, and the building in which the 
law-makers meet is the capitol. They assemble in two differ- 
ent rooms for the transaction of business. Those in one room 
are called Senators; and those in the other, Represen- 
tatives. The Senate and House of Representatives consti- 
tute the Congress. The States also elect an officer who is to 



ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


45 


see that the laws are obeyed; he is styled the President of the 
United States. They have, in addition, several Judges who 
explain the laws, and set aside any that may be in violation of 
the Constitution, which is the great law of the nation. These 
Judges constitute the Suprerpe Court. Because the people 
determine who shall make the laws, and who shall execute 
them, our government is a Republic. 

The people of each State elect men who meet at its capital 
and make its laws. They also elect its Governor, who enforc- 
es the laws, and Judges, who explain them; hence each State 
is a Republic. 

This, in all probability, is all that it is worth while to teach 
at present about forms of government. As the work progres- 
ses, thoughts will arise in the minds of the pupils that will 
prompt them to ask questions on this and kindred subjects. 
To answer these questions so as to impart the desired infor- 
mation in plain, simple language, is your work. It is most 
earnestly hoped that you will not assign long paragraphs 
about Kings, Queens, Czars, and Sultans, nor ask the children 
to learn dissertations on Absolute and Limited Monarchies; 
and for no better reason'than that they occur in the front part 
of the book. 

Divisions of the Country.— Geography-makers gen- 
erally begin the study of the States by separating them into 
groups. This grouping is not uniform even among the best 
geographers; it is largely a matter of taste. The following 
plan is believed to be as good as any, and better than some. 

I. The Northeastern, or New England States. 

II. The Middle States, which extend south to the line of 
the “Missouri Compromise,” and west to Ohio. 

III. The Southern States, which include all south of that 
line and east of the Rocky Mountains. 


4 6 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


IV. The Central States (Eastern Division), which include 
all north of the same line, and extend west from the Middle 
States to the Mississippi River. 

V. The Central States (Western Division), which are also 
bounded on the south by the line of the “Missouri Comprom- 
ise,” east by the Mississippi, north by British America, and 
west by the Rocky Mountains. 

VI. The Western States. 

VII. The Territories. 

VIII. The District of Columbia. 

Again, there is a diversity of opinion as to which group to 
study first. Some begin with the home group and work out- 
wards; others prefer beginning with the New England States. 
The latter plan is the most convenient, and will best enable 
the pupils to study the natural geography of the different 
groups, and also of the country as a whole. Whichever 
method is followed, the position and group of the home State 
should be noticed before proceeding farther. 

If this arrangement does not suit you, and you think of 
something better, use your freedom. Do not depend too 
much on any book; as even the best can only suggest. You 
must think for yourself and then decide as to plans. 



SCHEME OF CHAPTER IV. 


G 

0 

■ 4-1 

Oh 

u 

u 

< r> 
<L> 

O 

<D 

G 

<L> 

o 


i. States. 


1. Maine. 

2. New Hampshire. 
^ 3. Vermont. 

| 4. Massachusetts. 

I 5. Rhode Island. 

^6. Connecticut. 


2. Surface. 


1. White Mts. 

2. Green Mts. 


1. Mt. Washington. 

2. Katahdin. 


1. Mt. Mansfield. 

2. Hoosac. 


3. Industries. 


ITj 

QJ 

■ 4-1 

4-J 

W 

T 3 


2. Rivers. 


1. Manufactures. 

2. Agriculture. 

3. Commerce. 

4. Fisheries. 

4. Merrimac. 

5. Connecticut. 


§ j 3. Lakes. 
4. Bays. 


bjo 

G 

W 


£ 

o 

& 


4. Cape Cod. 

5. Narragansett. 




1. St. Croix. 

2. Penobscot. 

3. Kennebec. 

1. Chesuncook. 

2. Champlain. 

1. Penobscot. 

2. Casco. 

3. Massachusetts. 

5. Capes. Cape Cod. 

1 1. Mt. Desert. 

6. Islands. ) 2. Martha’s Vineyard. 

( 3. Rhode Island. 

1. Bangor. 10. Boston. 

2. Bath. 1 1. Plymouth. 

3. Augusta. 12. New Bedford. 21. Bridgeport. 

4. Portland. 13. Fall River. 22. Waterbury. 

5. Portsmouth. 14. Newport. 23. Montpelier. 

6. Lowell. 15. Providence. 24. Burlington. 

7. Manchester. 16. Worcester. 25. Rutland. 

8. Concord. 17. Hartford. 

9. Salem. 18. Springfield. 

( 47 ) 


c n 
<D 


19. Holyoke. 

20. New Haven. 


O < 

« 


CHAPTER IV. 


NEW ENGLAND. 

Maine, Massachusetts, 

New Hampshire, Rhode Island, 

Vermont Connecticut. 

G-EIlEral DESCriptinn, — New England consists of six 
States, one of which, Rhode IsJand, is the smallest in the 
Union. Maine is the largest State in this group, and is about 
as large as the other five. The entire group does not equal in 
area some of the Western States. 

The surface of New England is very rough. The White 
Mountains pass southwest and northeast through New Hamp- 
shire and Maine. Mt. Washington, the highest point, is situ- 
ated in New Hampshire; it is frequently called “The Crown 
of New England,” being the highest point in this group of 
States. Thousands of people ascend it every summer to be- 
hold the magnificent view that may be had from its summit. 
In Maine, the mountains are much lower, Mt. Katahdin be- 
ing the highest point. 

The Green Mountains extend north and south through 
Massachusetts and Vermont. In the former State they are 
known by the name of Hoosac Mountains, and have passing 
through them the longest railroad tunnel in the United States; 
it is about five miles in length and situated in the northwest- 
ern part of the State. Near the center of Vermont, the Green 
Mountains separate into two ranges, presenting the form of a 
Y, with the opening to the north. Mt. Mansfield, the high- 
est point, is in the western range. 

(48) 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


49 


Industries. — Owing to the character of its surface, New 
England is poorly fitted for farming. Yet, in some parts, the 
industry and perseverance of the people overcome the sterility 
of the soil, and their labor is rewarded with fair crops of 
wheat, oats, rye, barley, potatoes, and corn. Tobacco is raised 
in Connecticut and Massachusetts, and Vermont is extensively 
engaged in wool-growing. New Hampshire produces about 
wheat enough each year to keep its inhabitants in bread three 
weeks. From where do the people get bread? How pay for 
it? 

The mountains that render New England unfit for agricul- 
ture give it great manufacturing facilities, by causing falls and 
rajuds in the rivers. The water-power thus furnished by na- 
ture is used in manufacturing cotton and woolen goods, boots 
and shoes, clocks, hardware, machinery, paper, etc. 

The commci'ce of New England is very extensive. The 
leading exports are lumber from Maine, granite from Massa- 
chusetts and New Hampshire, marble from Vermont, and 
manufactured articles from the different States. The imports 
are cotton, wool, coal, iron, hides, and the various articles of 
food. 

Many of the people are engaged in fishing. 

SU-ggEStinnS. — In the lessons which follow, you will ob- 
serve that the places studied are not, at first, arranged accord- 
ing to States. It is believed that in the assignment and learn- 
ing of the lesson, it is best to follow the coast line and rivers 
as far as may be. This is what may be termed the natural plan 
of studying geogra P h y, and leads to a more comprehensive 
view of the work than can be gained by strictly following 
State limitations. In sketching, care must be taken to draw 
the State lines where they belong, and of the proper shape. 
So that the pupils must not only study the places with refer- 
ence to their State, but also in their relations to other States. 


50 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


You will find it profitable to take a few minutes of the reci- 
tation hour each clay in assigning the lesson for the clay following. 
Do not let the shortness of the recitation period keep you from 
doing this, and lead you, instead, to write a list of names on the 
blackboard for the children to copy. The plan here commend- 
ed will enable you to save time by diminishing the number of 
classes. Two classes in geography are all that are necessary 
in any school, one in Elementary work, the other in Advan- 
ced work. Uniformity of text-books is not essential to the well- 
being or happiness of either, unless the teacher is too shiftless 
to learn his lesson; and if he is, uniformity of text-books will 
avail but little. The teacher is more than the book — or 
should be. 

Let each member of the class have his book open at the 
proper page, and find each place on the map as you mention its 
name. It is hoped that you have pride enough to co?7ifiel you 
to know the lesson before assigning it to your pupils. Do not 
be under the necessity of referring to the book, or of reading 
the names from your note book, which is worse. If you 
assign a place that does not happen to be shown on 
some of the maps in use, be ready to step to the blackboard 
and, with the chalk, show the position of the place with refer- 
ence to some place that can be found. 

Do not excuse yourself from doing this work by saying you 
have no talent for drawing, no “knack” in sketching. It is not 
so much a question of talent as it is of 'willingness to work % 
If you practice intelligently and industriously, you will soon 
learn to sketch creditably. Others have done so, why not 
you? 

Remember that this work is elementary, and you are to study 
but few places. But these are to be selected because of their 
importance, and not at hap-hazard from the map. It is be- 
lieved that the following places will be sufficient at present 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


5 * 


Mains.— 

St. Croix River — Boundary. Mt. Desert Island , a popu 

a lar summer resort. 

Penobscot Bay. Penobscot River , navigable for large ves- 
sels to Bangor. Bangor , the center of a rich farming country, 
and of the lumber traffic for New England. 

Chesuncook Lake . Mt. Katahdin , the highest land in 

Maine. Kemtebec River. Bath , noted for ship building. 
Augusta , the capital of the State. 

Casco Bay. Portland , the principal sea port of Maine, 

and its largest city. 

When these places are learned, have the pupils pass to the 
blackboard and sketch the State. Let them use their rulers in 
getting the proportions, but do not permit them to put on any 
complicated system of triangles or squares. They will at first 
be inclined to do so, as they find suggestions to that effect in 
their text-books. Forbid it, and insist that the work be free- 
hand drawing. You will need to assist them occasionally by 
giving timely suggestions as to the length of the State, its 
width at different points, or the shape of an end or side, but as 
far as possible let the children observe these things themselves. 

When the sketch is completed, with mountains, rivers, lakes, 
bays, islands, cities, etc. neatly shown, let the pupils name the 
adjoining States; this is an easy way of learning boundaries. 
Portsmouth , the principal sea port of New Hampshire. 
Merrimac River turns the most spindles of any river in the 
world. What is a spindle? 

Lovoell is the second largest city in Massachusetts, and manu- 
factures the most cotton goods of any city in the United 
States. 

Manchester , the largest city in New Hampshire, is largely 
engaged in the manufacture of cotton goods, and other 
articles. 

Concord \ the capital of New Hampshire. 


52 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


The Merrimac River rises among the White Mountains. 

Going south from its mouth we come to 

Salem , noted in the past for witchcraft 

Boston ,* the capital of Massachusetts, and the largest city in 
New England. It is extensively engaged in commerce, 
and has in it many places of interest; among which are 
Boston Common and Bunker Hill Monument. Harvard 
University is near by. 

Plymouth , noted for the landing of the Pilgrim Fathers. 

Cape Cod Bay . 

Cape Cod . Can you hold your arm so it will resemble this 

strip of land? On which side is the bay? Where is 
the cape? 

Sketch the Merrimac River, and the coast from Maine to 

Cape Cod. 

Martha's Vineyard , a popular summer resort. 

Narragansett Bay cuts the State of Rhode Island into two 
unequal parts? On which side is the larger part? 

Rhode Island , a beautiful island in Narragansett Bay. 

Newport , one of the capitals of the State of Rhode island and 
a very popular summer resort, is situated on the island of 
Rhode Island. 

Fall River , a city of Massachusetts, extensively engaged in 
the manufacture of cotton goods, nails, machinery, etc. 

Providence , one of the capitals of Rhode Island, is largely en- 
gaged in manufactures ; it is the seat of Brown University. 

Worcester has over twenty manufactories of boots and shoes, 
besides manufactories of many other articles. 

Connecticut River , the largest river in New England. 

Ascending the Connecticut River we come to 

Hartford , noted for its insurance companies. 

Springfield , noted for the United States arsenal situated 
there. What is an arsenal? 


♦See sketch of Boston, Part HI. 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


53 


Holyoke , noted for several kinds of manufactures, especially 
paper. 

Sketch the Connecticut River, showing all boundaries that 
cross it. Sketch Rhode Island. 

Sailing west from the mouth of the Connecticut River, we 
come to 

New Haven , the most populous city of the State, and the seat 
of Yale College. Why is it sometimes called “The 
City of Elms”? 

Bridgeport , extensively engaged in the manufacture of car- 
riages, sewing-machines, ammunition, etc. 

Waterbury , noted for its rolling-mills, button-factories, clock- 
factories, etc. 

Lake Champlain , a long, narrow body of water situated be- 
tween the States of New York and Vermont. The 
outlet is at the north end, and flows into the St. Law- 
rence River. 

Winooski River flows into Lake Champlain from the east. 
On it is 

Montpelier , the capital of Vermont. 

Burlington , the most populous city of Vermont, is situated 
on Lake Champlain, a short distance from the mouth 
of the Winooski River. 

Rutland , noted for its marble quarries. 

Sketch Connecticut. Notice that the Connecticut River 
crosses the northern boundary of the State a trifle east of the 
middle, and that the southern border of the State, excepting 
the narrow strip at the southwest corner, is divided into 
three nearly equal parts by the Connecticut River and New 
Haven Bay. 

Sketch Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Massachusetts. Ob- 
serve that the east end of Connecticut equals in width the 
State of Massachusetts, opposite that point, and that the north- 


54 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY, 


ern boundary of Connecticut equals the distance from the 
northeast corner of the State to the east side of Cape Cod 
Bay. 

Sketch Vermont and New Hampshire. The north end of 
Vermont is about four times as wide as New Hampshire on 
the same parallel, and equal to the northern boundary of Con- 
necticut; it is also midway between the equator and the north 
pole. 

These measurements will suggest others to the teacher and, 
it is hoped, to the pupils also. The care which they must ex- 
ercise in testing the accuracy of these will probably lead to 
discoveries equally valuable. Let them be encouraged to ob- 
serve closely and accurately. 








CHAPTER V. 


THE MIDDLE STATES. 

Note: — You can make schemes for this and the following 
chapters, from the models already given. 

New York, Delaware, 

New Jersey, Maryland, 

Pennsylvania, Virginia, 

West Virginia. 

This group of seven States lies between New England and 
the Ohio River, and between the Great Lakes and the Atlan- 
tic. The group is traversed from northeast to southwest by 
the ranges of the Appalachian Mountains, which influence 
the surface of each of the States, except Delaware. 

The coal and iron stored up in these mountains constitute a 
great share of the wealth of the States. 

This is especially true of Pennsylvania, whose anthracite 
coal-fields, situated between the Delaware and Susquehanna 
Rivers, are the most valuable in the country, and probably in 
the world. 

Their great abundance of fuel makes it possible and profit- 
able for these States to enter largely into manufactures of va- 
rious kinds. The principal branch carried on is the produc- 
tion of iron and steel wares of all sorts, in which industry this 
group of States leads all others. 

Agriculture is the leading industry in each of the States, 
and forms the sure foundation on which its prosperity rests. 
Wheat, rye, barley, oats, Indian corn, and the common vege- 
tables and fruits are profitably cultivated in all, while tobacco, 

( 55 ) 


56 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


forms one of the staple crops of Delaware, Maryland, Virgin- 
ia, and West Virginia. 

New York City* the largest city of the United States, is situ- 
ated on New York Bay at the mouth of the Hudson 
River. It has the most commerce of any city in the 
country, and is largely engaged in manufacturing. 
Brooklyn , the third city of the United States in size, is situated 
on the west end of Long Island, and separated from the 
city of New York by the East River. 

Jersey City , the largest city of New Jersey, is situated on 
the west bank of the Hudson River, opposite the city 
of New York. 

Ascending the Hudson River, we come to 
West Point , the seat of the United States Military Academy, 
at which are educated officers for the United States 
Army. 

Poughkeepsie is noted for its schools, especially Vassar Col- 
lege, for ladies. 

Albany , the capital of the State of New York, is on the Hud- 
son. 

Troy is noted for the manufacture of stoves, shirts and collars. 
The Mohawk River. 

Saratoga Springs , a famous watering-place, is north of the 
Mohawk, and a few miles west of the Hudson. 

The Hudson River rises among the Adirondack Mountains, 
in the northeastern part of New York. 

In sketching the Hudson, let the pupils note the two great 
bends between its source and the mouth of the Mohawk. 

North of the State of New York are the St. Lawrence 
River and Lake Ontario. 

Oswego is situated on Lake Ontario. 

Rochester is noted for its flouring mills, fruit nurseries, and 
the manufacture of boots and shoes. 


*See sketch of New York, Part III. 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


57 


Niagara River flows from Lake Erie into Lake Ontario. 

In it are the famous Falls of Niagara, 165 feet high. 
Buffalo, noted for its commerce. 

Sketch the State of New York, showing all the places 
learned in the State, including Lake George and the west 
shore cfLake Champlain. 

Newark is an important city of New Jersey. 

Long Branch is an important watering-place on the coast of 
New Jersey. 

Cape May , the southern point of New Jersey. 

Cape Henlopen . Delaware Bay . 

The State of Delaware is especially noted for its peaches. 
Notice the shape of the State, and compare its size with that 
of Rhode Island. 

Dover , the capital of Delaware, is situated on Jones Creek. 
Wilmington , the largest city of Delaware, is an important 
manufacturing city. 

Delaware River . 

Philadelphia , the largest city of Pennsylvania, is noted for its 
commerce and manufactures. 

Trenton , the capital of New Jersey. 

The Delaware River separates what States? Sketch the 
river. 

Sketch the State of New Jersey as a whole. 

Cape Charles is on the north side of the entrance into Chesa- 
peake Bay. 

Cape Henry is on the south side of the entrance into the Ches- 
apeake. 

Observe that both Capes Charles and Henry are in Virgin- 
ia, and that on the peninsula between the Delaware and Ches- 
apeake Bays are situated the State of Delaware and parts of 
Maryland and Virginia. There are no large cities in that part 
of Maryland lying east of the Chesapeake Bay. 

The Susquehanna River . 


5 * 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


Harrisburg , the capital of Pennsylvania. 

Wilkesbarre is an important coal -mining and manufacturing 
center. Its principal manufactures are locomotives, 
mining engines, railroad cars, miners’ tools and pottery. 

Notice where the Susquehanna enters Pennsylvania, and 

the two great bends which it makes before entering the bay. 

Pittsburgh the second city of Pennsylvania in population, is 
situated at the head of the Ohio River. It is the great- 
est iron manufacturing city on the Western Hemi- 
sphere. 

Erie is situated on Lake Erie. 

Sketch the State of Pennsylvania showing its rivers and 

towns. Be careful to get the proportions right. 

Draw the States of New York, New Jersey, and Pennsyl- 
vania in one sketch. 

Baltimore , the most populous city of Maryland, is situated on 
the Patapsco River, fourteen miles from its entrance 
into the Chesapeake Bay. It is a very important com- 
mercial and manufacturing city. The canning of oys- 
ters, fruits, and vegetables is carried on extensively. Bal- 
timore is often called the “Monumental City.” Why? 

Annapolis, the capital of Maryland. 

The Potomac River rises in the northern part of West Virgin- 
ia, flows southeast, and enters the Chesapeake Bay mid- 
way between Baltimore and the capes. What States 
are separated by the Potomac? 

Washington , the capital of the United States, is situated on 
the east bank of the Potomac, in the District of Colum- 
bia. The most interesting buildings in the city are the 
Capitol, in which Congress meets to make laws for the 
nation, the White House, which is the residence of the 
President, and the Patent Office in which are kept 
models of all machines invented in the country. The 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 59 

Washington monument, 555 feet in height, is the 
highest structure ever built by man. 

In sketching Maryland be careful about the shape and width 
of the western part of the State. 

The James River . 

Fortress Monroe is situated at the mouth of the James. 
No?'folk is the principal seaport of Virginia. 

Richmond , the Capital of Virginia, was the capital of the 
Southern Confederacy. 

Lynchburg is on the James. 

Wheeling , the capital of West Virginia, is on the east bank 
of the Ohio River. Notice the width of the State at 
this point. 

Charleston , an important city of West Virginia. 

Sketch Virginia and West Virginia, and make scheme of 
this chapter, similar to the scheme of New England. 



CHAPTER VI. 


THE SOUTHERN STATES. 


North Carolina, 
South Carolina, 
Georgia, 
Florida, 
Alabama, 


Mississippi, 

Louisiana, 

Texas, 

Arkansas, 

Tennessee. 


This group of States may be regarded as bounded on the 
north by parallel 3 6° 30', the Missouri Compromise line. 

The Appalachian Mountains continue southwest into Mis- 
sissippi, and influence the surface of each of the States east 
of the Mississippi, excepting Florida; and the surface of States 
west of the Mississippi, with the exception of Louisiana, is 
broken by the Ozark Mts. The southern half of each of the 
Atlantic and Gulf States is low and level. 

The climate in the northern part of the group is temperate, 
while in the southern part it is sub-tropical. 

The crops in the north are about the same as those of the 
Middle States, but in the south cotton, rice and sugar-cane are 
the chief productions. This is the greatest cotton-producing 
region of the world. 

Mississippi produces the most cotton of any of the States; 
Louisiana, the most sugar-cane; and South Carolina, the most 
rice. North Carolina is noted for its tar, turpentine, and to- 
bacco. 

Manufacturing is not carried on so extensively as in the New 
England and Middle States, but it is now receiving much at- 

(60) 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


61 


tention, and great progress has been made in this direction in 
the last ten years. 

The Appalachian Mts. are rich in coal and iron, which are 
being profitably mined in several of the States. 

Cape Hatter as, the eastern point of North Carolina. 

Raleigh , the capital of North Carolina, is an important rail- 
road center. 

Wilmington is the largest city of North Carolina, and its prin- 
cipal sea port. 

Black Dome , the highest mountain east of the Mississippi, is 
in the western prrt of North Carolina. Height, 6,706 ft, 
Columbia , the capital of South Carolina. 

Charleston , the most populous city of South Carolina, is the 
leading commercial city of the Carolinas. Fort Sumter 
guards the entrance into the Harbor. 

Savannah , an important river, which separates South Caro- 
lina from Georgia. 

In sketching the Carolinas, observe that North Carolina ex- 
tends much farther west than South Carolina. 

Savannah , the principal sea port of Georgia. 

Atlanta , the capital and largest city of Georgia, is an impor- 
tant railroad center, and is extensively engaged in manu- 
facturing. 

Saint John's, the principal river of Florida, flows through the 
great orange-producing region of the State. 

St. Augustine, the oldest city of the United States, is situated 
on the Atlantic coast. 

Cape Sable, the southern point of Florida. 

Key West, on an island southwest of Cape Sable, is the most 
populous city of Florida. It has important sponge- 
fisheries, and extensive manufactures of cigars. 

Gulf of Mexico . Tallahassee, the capital of Florida. 

Mobile Bay, an arm of the Gulf of Mexico. 

Mobile, the largest city and only sea port of Alabama. 


62 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


Mobile River is formed by the junction of the Tombigbee 
and Alabama Rivers. 

Montgomery , the capital of Alabama, and the second city of 
the State in size and commercial importance. 

When sketching Georgia, Alabama, and Florida, call the 
attention of the pupils to the northern boundary of Florida. 
Observe that Alabama is bounded on the south for three- 
fourths of the distance by Florida, and that Georgia is bound- 
ed on the north for half of its width by North Carolina. 
Jackson , the capital of Mississippi. 

Vicksburg , an important commercial city; also noted for its 
part in the Civil War. 

Mississippi , the most important river of the United States, 
enters the Gulf of Mexico by several mouths. It is 
navigable almost throughout its entire course. 

New Orleans , the largest city in this group of States, is situat- 
ed on the left bank of the Mississippi, a hundred miles 
from the Gulf. It is a very important commercial 
city; from 1,000 to 1,500 vessels of various kinds may 
frequently be seen at its levee, loading and unloading. 
Baton Rouge , on the east bank of the Mississippi River, is 
the capital of Louisiana. 

Shreveport is a flourishing town, on the Red River. 

Sketch Louisiana and Mississippi, and when doing so, notice 
that the Red River flows into the Mississippi River opposite 
a boundarv line. 

J 

Sabine River separates Louisiana from Texas. 

Galveston , the largest city and principal seaport of Texas, is 
situated on Galveston Island at the entrance to Galves- 
ton Bay. 

Austin , the capital of Texas, is quite a railroad center, and has 
considerable commerce. 

Rio Grande River separates Texas from the Republic of 
Mexico. 






ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 63 

Texas is the largest State of the. Union. It is about four and 
a half times as large as Illinois, and two hundred and 
twelve times as large as Rhode Island, but its popula- 
lation at this writing is only about half as great as that 
of Illinois. 

Arkansas River . 

Little Rock , on the south bank of the Arkansas River, is the 
capital and largest city of Arkansas. 

Helena , on the Mississippi, has considerable commerce. 
Memphis, an important commercial city. 

Nashville , the capital and largest city of Tennessee, is a hand- 
some city, and has i : large commerce, being the center 
of an extensive railroad system. 

In sketching Tennessee, the Cumberland and Tennessee 
Rivers should be shown. The break in the northern bound- 
ary should be pointed out, and all boundaries which touch the 
State should be marked on the sketch for a short distance. 



CHAPTER VII. 


EASTERN DIVSION OF THE CENTRAL STATES. 

Kentucky, Illinois, 

Ohio, Wisconsin, 

Indiana, Michigan. 

This Division is bounded on the north by the Great Lakes, 
on the east by Pennsylvania and the Ohio and Sandy Rivers, 
on the south by the Southern States, and on the west most* 
ly by the Mississippi River. 

The surface, in the main, is level, although the eastern half 
of Kentucky and southern half of Ohio are hilly and broken. 

The climate is on the whole temperate, but variable. 

The leading productions are Indian corn, wheat, oats, rye, 
barley, Irish potatoes, and the common vegetables and fruits. 

Kentucky produces much tobacco; Ohio, wheat and wool; 
and«Illinois, the most corn of any State in the Union. Michi- 
gan and Wisconsin have extensive pine forests, from which 
large quantities of lumber are made annually; and the former 
has, also, valuable mines of copper and iron. The greater 
part of Illinois is under-laid by rich deposits of coal, which is 
of great value in advancing the manufacturing interests of the 
State. 

All of the States are extensively engaged in manufacturing 
— farming implements of various descriptions being the chief 
productions. Illinois manufactures the most whisky of any 
State in the Union. 

Ohio River . 

Louisville , the largest city of Kentucky, is actively engaged 
in commerce, and has extensive manufacturing estab- 
lishments. 


( 64 ) 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


65 


Frankfort , the capital of Kentucky, is situated on the Ken- 
tucky River, in the famous blue-grass region. 

Sandy River forms the boundary between Kentucky and 
West Virginia. 

Cincinnati , the largest city in the basin of the Ohio, is an im- 
portant commercial and manufacturing city, and is 
especially noted for the great quantity of pork it packs 
annually. 

Columbus , the capital of Ohio, is a commercial and manu- 
facturing center. 

Cleveland , is the largest city of northern Ohio; its lake com- 
merce is very important. 

Toledo is situated on the Maumee River, a short distance from 
Lake Erie. It is noted for its commerce and manufac- 
tures. 

Detroit , the largest city of Michigan, is one of the leading 
commercial cities of the lakes; its manufactures, also, 
are important. 

Lake Huron . Straits of Mackinaw, 

Lake Michigan separates Wisconsin from apart of Michigan. 

Lansing , the capital of Michigan. 

Fort Wayne, an important railroad town of Indiana. 

Wabash River rises in Ohio, flows southwest through Indiana 
until it reaches the boundary between that State and 
Illinois, which line it follows for the rest of its course 
to the Ohio. 

La Fayette , a railroad and manufacturing town. 

7'erre Haute is also a railroad and manufacturing town. 

Indianapolis , the capital and largest city of Indiana, is the cen- 
ter of one of the great railroad systems of the nation, 
which fact accounts for its very extensive commerce. 
Its manufactures are many and valuable, and pork-pack- 
ing is one of its chief industries. 

Shawneetown is in the southern part of Illinois. 


66 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


Cairo , the most southern city of Illinois, is situated at the 
junction of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, which 
position gives it great commercial advantages. 

Let the pupils sketch the Ohio River, showing its principal 

tributaries, cities, and all boundaries that touch its banks. 

East St. Louis is in the southwestern part of Illinois, on the 
Mississippi River. It is opposite St. Louis with which 
it is connected by one of the finest bridges in the 
country. At East St. Louis are located the largest stock 
yards in the Union. 

Illinois River is the principal river of Illinois. 

S^prmg field, the capital of Illinois, is situated four miles south 
of the Sangamon, one of the branches of the Illinois. 
Lincoln’s Monument, which is located here, and the 
Capitol are the principal objects of interest in the city. 

Decatur is an important railroad center and manufacturing 
town. 

Bloomington is surrounded by a rich farming country, to 
which it owes its prosperity. 

Peoria , the second city of Illinois in size and commercial im- 
portance, is also an important railroad center, and is very 
extensively engaged in manufacturing. 

Aurora , an important railroad town. 

Elgin is noted for its watch factory and Insane Asylum. 

Kankakee also, has an Insane Asylum. 

Joliet is an enterprising and prosperous city on the Des 
Plaines River; it is noted for its stone quarries and 
the State Penitentiary. 

Chicago , the largest city of Illinois, is situated in the north- 
eastern part of the State on Lake Michigan, at the 
mouth of the Chicago R iver. The river and its branches 
divide the city into three parts, the North, South, and 
West Sides. 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


67 


Chicago is the fourth city of the Union in population, 
the third in manufactures and the second in commerce. 
More important lines of railroad center here than in 
any other city on the continent. It is the greatest grain 
market in the world, and the most important market in 
the United States for live-stock and lumber, and it packs 
the most pork of any city in the world. 

The great fire of 1871 destroyed a large part of the 
city. Population in 1880,* 503,185, but it is much more 
now as its growth is rapid. 

Quincy, the third city of Illinois in population. 

Rock Island is a short distance above the mouth of the 
Rock River, on the Mississippi. The United States 
Arsenal is situated on an island in the river opposite the 
city. 

Rock River has a great number of manufacturing towns along 
its banks. 

Rockford , engaged in manufacturing farming implements, is 
on Rock River 

Galena , noted for its lead mines, is in the northwestern part 
of Illinois, a short distance from the Mississippi. 

Sketch Illinois. 

La Crosse and Eau Claire (O Clare) manufacture great 
quantities of lumber annually. 

Lake Superior , the largest body of fresh water in the world. 

Green Bay . 

Oshkosh is the center of an important lumber trade. 

Milwaukee , the “Cream City,” situated on the west shore of 
Lake Michigan, at the mouth of the Milwaukee River, 
is the largest city of Wisconsin. The city is extensive- 
ly engaged in trading and manufacturing. It is espec- 
ially noted for its beer and brick. 

Madison , situated on some beautiful lakes in the southern part 
of the State, is the capital of Wisconsin. 


*For a fuller description of Chicago, see Part III, 


CHAPTER VIII. 


WESTERN DIVISION OF THE CENTRAL STATES. 
Missouri, Nebraska, 

Iowa, Kansas, 

Minnesota, Colorado. 

This group of States is very irregular in outline; hence, it is 
difficult to bound. On the east it is separated from the East- 
ern Division of the Central States by the Mississippi River, 
on the south it is bounded by Arkansas and the Territories, on 
the west by the Territories, and on the north by the Territor- 
ies and British America. 

The surface of four of these States is level. That of Mis- 
souri is broken and hilly, especially in the south; and that of 
Colorado is very rough, nearly the whole State being covered 
with mountains. 

The climate and crops are about the same as those of the 
States studied in the last chapter, with the exception of Colo- 
rado, in which the winters are very severe, and the summers 
cool and bracing. 

Missouri has rich deposits of coal, iron, lead, and zinc. Iowa 
and Kansas are well supplied with coal; and the silver mines 
of Colorado are famous throughout the world. Manufactur- 
ing is carried on to some extent, but not on so large a scale as 
in the States east of the Mississppi. 

St. Louis , the most populous city in the basin of the Missis- 
sippi, is situated on the right bank of that river, twenty 
miles south of the mouth of the Missouri River. It is 
connected with the Illinois side of the river by the finest 
bridge that crosses the Mississippi, over which pass the 

( 68 ) 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


69 


scores of railroad trains that enter the city daily from 
the east. The city has a very extensive river com- 
merce, and is a great manufacturing center. 

Missouri River rises among the Rocky Mountains. 

Jefferson City , the capital of Missouri, is near the center of 
the State. 

Kansas City , the “Gate City of the Southwest” is the second 
city of the State, both in population and commerce. 
Hannibal is a railroad and manufacturing town. 

Des Moines River , for a part of its course, forms the bound- 
ary between Iowa and Missouri. 

Des Moines , the capital of Iowa. 

Council Bluffs is the largest city of Western Iowa. 
Burlington , a prosperous city of Iowa, manufactures farming 
implements, flour, machinery and railroad cars. 
Davenport , one of the leading cities of Iowa, is opposite Rock 
Island, with which it is connected by a grand, wrought 
iron bridge. It carries on considerable trade, and is 
quite a manufacturing city. 

Dubuque , the principal business center of the lead region of 
the Northwest, is situated opposite the northern end of 
Illinois. 

St. Paul , the capital of Minnesota, is at the head of navigation; 
its commerce is great. 

Minneapolis , the largest city of Minnesota, is on the Missis- 
sippi R., a little below the Falls of St. Anthony. It manufac- 
tures the most flour of any city in the world. 

. Let the pupils sketch the Mississippi from its source to Cairo, 
showing its principal bends, tributaries and cities. Have the 
pupils indicate all boundaries that touch the river. This is 
important . 

Duluth , at the west end of Lake Superior, is the eastern ter- 
minus of the Northern Pacific Railroad; its commerce is con- 
siderable. 


70 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


Omaha , the largest city of Nebraska, is a great railroad cen- 
ter, and has some trade and manufactures. 

Platte River rises in Colorado. 

Lincoln , the capital of Nebraska. 

Leavenworth is the largest city of Kansas. 

Kansas River . Topeka, the capital of Kansas. 

Denver , the capital and largest city of Colorado, is on the 
South Fork of the Platte R. This is the center of a very rich 
silver-mining region. 

Leadville , noted for its silver mines, is on the head waters 
of the Arkansas River. 

Sketch the Missouri, being sure to have the boundaries 
properly placed. 




CHAPTER IX. 


WESTERN STATES AND TERRITORIES. 


Nevada. 

States.*! California - 
Oregon. 


The surface of Nevada is very rough, there being but little 
level land in the State. Owing to this fact, and, also, to the 
slight rain-fall, agriculture is not carried on so extensively as in 
the other States. 

The chief wealth of the State consists in its rich mines of 
gold and silver. 

Carson City , the capital of Nevada, is situated in the west- 
ern part of the State. It has a United States mint, and several 
mills for extracting gold and silver. Explain briefly what 
these mills are and what they do. 

California is the second State of the Union in size. It is 
bounded on the west by the Pacific Ocean throughout its 
whole length, and on the southeast by Arizona, separated by 
the Colorado River. 

The surface consists of two systems of mountains, the Coast 
Range and Sierra Nevada, and the long, double valley be- 
tween them. The San Joaquin River flows north through 
the southern part of this double valley, and the Sacramento 
River flows south through the northern part. Both rivers 
flow into the Bay of San Francisco, an arm of the Pacific. 

California is one of the leading wheat and wool-producing 
States of the Union. Wherever the land can be irrigated it 
yields large crops; and sheep and cattle do well on the lower 

(70 


72 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


foot hills. The southern part of the State is famous for its 
oranges and grapes. 

The gold mines of California have added much to its wealth, 
and mining is still carried on profitably in many parts of the 
State. 

Sacramento City , the capital of California, is an important 
commercial city. 

Safi Francisco is the principal city of California, both in 
population and commerce. Its commerce is growing very 
rapidly, and its manufactures of silk goods, cigars, boots and 
shoes, carriages, and glass are very valuable. 

The surface of Oregon is rough and broken, as the Cascade 
Mountains extend north and south through the State. There 
is, however, much good farming land in the State; and its mild 
climate and great forests are attracting to it a large number of 
industrious farmers from the older States. 

Salem , on the east bank of the Willamette River, is the 
capital of Oregon. 

Portland , the largest city of Oregon, is on the west bank of 
the Willamette River. It is the chief commercial city of the 
State, and exports wheat, flour, oats, wool and lumber. 

Sketch California and Oregon. 


Territories. 


Dakota, 

Montana, 

\ Idaho, 
Washington, 
Wyoming, 

t 


Utah, 

Indian Territory, 
New Mexico, 
Arizona, 

Alaska. 


Nearly all of the Territories are situated among the Rocky 
Mountains, consequently their surface is very rough and 
broken. With the exception of Dakota, and possibly Wash- 
ington, they are not well fitted for agriculture. Many of them 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


73 


have rich mines of gold and silver, and all except Alaska, sup- 
port large herds of cattle. They are destined to be the great 
beef-producing region of the country. 

Dakota joins Minnesota on the west. It is being rapidly 
settled, and is noted for its great wheat fields. It has rich 
gold mines in the southwest, among the Black Hills. 

Bismarck, the capital of Dakota, is situated on the Missouri 
River. 

Montana is next west of Dakota. It is noted for its gold 
and silver mines and for its cattle. 

Helena, the capital of Montana, is fourteen miles west of the 
Missouri River. 

Idaho is also famous for its mines of gold and silver, and cattle. 

Boise City, the capital, is in the southwestern part of the 
Territory. 

Washington Territory is situated in the northwestern corner 
of the United States. Much of its area is well suited for ag- 
riculture, and the rest is adapted to grazing. It is separated 
from Oregon, nearly throughout, by the Columbia River. 

Olympia, in the western part of the Territory, on Puget’s 
Sound, is the capital. 

Wyoming is mainly devoted to grazing, although there is 
some farming carried on in this as well as in all of the other 
Territories. 

Cheyenne, the capital, is situated in the southeastern part. 

Utah is one of the most prosperous of the Territories. 
Farming is carried on with great skill and perseverance. The 
mining interests of the Territory are important. 

Salt Lake City, the capital of Utah, is situated near the 
Jordan River, about twelve miles from the Great Salt Lake. 
It is a beautiful and prosperous city. 

Indian Territory is set apart by the Government of the 
the United States for the use of the Indians. No white man is 
allowed to own land in the territory, unless he is married to an 


74 




ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 

Indian woman. Many of the tribes have become quite civil- 
ized. The Territory can hardly be said to have a capital. 
Tahlequah, in the northeastern part of the Territory, is, proba- 
bly, the principal city. 

New Mexico has a warm climate, and wherever the vallevs 

' •/ 

can be irrigated, abundant crops can be raised. Grazing and 
mining are the principal industries. Many of the people 
speak the Spanish laguage. 

Santa Fe , the capital of New Mexico, is about twenty miles 
east of the Rio Grande River. 

Arizona lies west of New Mexico, and is bounded on the 
west by California and Nevada. It is mainly a barren, sandy 
region, owing to the insufficiency of rain. It has rich silver 
mines. 

Prescott , the capital, is situated nearly in the center of Ari- 
zona. 

Alaska is not connected with the rest of the United States. 
It is situated in the northwestern corner of North America. 
There are but few white people in the Territory. The cli- 
mate is too cold for agriculture; but the Territory is valuable 
on account of its fisheries and furs. 

Sitka, the capital of Alaska, is on an island off the west coast. 



CHAPTER X. 


SOUTH AMERICA. 

South America, the smaller of the American continents, is 
situated southeast of North America, with which it is con- 
nected by the Isthmus of Panama. 

It is triangular in form, wide at the north, and tapering 
towards the south. Its longest side is on the west, and the 
shortest on the north. The coast line is very regular, there 
being but comparatively few indentations. 

The surface resembles that of North America. The Andes 
Mountains, which may be regarded as a continuation of the 
Rocky Mountains, extend along the Pacific coast from the 
Isthmus to Cape Horn, the southern extremity of the conti- 
nent. They are much closer to the coast than are the “Rock- 
ies,” reach a greater elevation, and contain many volcanoes. 
Nevado de Sorata (25,000 feet above sea level), in Bolivia, is 
the highest land in the New World. Between the ranges of 
these mountains are several extensive plateaus, and deep val- 
leys. 

The Brazilian Mountains, next in importance to the Andes, 
are situated on the eastern edge of the table-land of Brazil, 
parallel to the Atlantic Ocean. Their position may be com- 
pared with that of the Appalachian Mountains of North 
America. 

The Mountains of Guiana form the northern rim of the 
great basin of the Amazon, and correspond, in position, with 
the Height of Land in the northern continent, although much 
nearer the sea. 


( 75 ) 


76 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


The three great plains of South America are the Llanos of 
the Orinoco, the Selvas of the Amazon, and the Pampas of 
the Rio de la Plata. They will be described more fully in 
connection with their respective rivers. 

The most of South America is situated in the torrid zone, 
and were the climate determined by the latitude alone, it would 
be very hot. But the different elevations at which the land 
lies, influence the temperature more than does proximity 
to the equator. In the low valleys and plains the climate is 
very hot, and where there is sufficient rain, large crops of 
maize, sugar-cane, indigo, cotton, coffee, and tropical fruits are 
raised. The table-lands and slopes of the mountains have an 
even and delightful climate, but are subject to severe earth- 
quakes. The principal crops are about the same as those cul- 
tivated in the United States. The climate is very cold on the 
upper slopes of the mountains, and the lofty peaks by which 
they are crowned, are always covered with snow. The traveler 
can pass in the course of a few days from the region of the 
orange and palm to that of perpetual frost and snow. 

The vegetation of South America is as diversified as the 
climate. In the lowlands are found the palm, “cow-tree,” 
India-rubber tree, mahogany, rose-wood, chocolate plant, man- 
dioca, etc. On the plateaus and mountain slopes are the oak? 
quinine tree, and fir. Mosses and lichens are the characteris- 
tic plants of the cold regions. 

The mountains and table-lands of South America contain 
rich mines of silver, gold, copper, quick-silver, and diamonds. 
The want of good roads is a great drawback to mining, and 
renders many of the most valuable mines almost inaccessible 
to the outside world. 

The governments of the several countries of the continent, 
except Brazil and the Guianas, are Republics. Brazil is an 
Empire, and its white inhabitants are mostly of Portuguese 
descent, and speak the Portuguese language. The Guianas are 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


77 


European colonies, and the legal language of each is that of 
the mother country. The white inhabitants of the republics 
are mostly of Spanish descent, and speak the Spanish lan- 
guage. 

All of the countries of South America, except Bolivia and 
Faraguay, border on the sea. In the northwestern corner of 
the continent is the United States of Columbia. It includes 
the Isthmus of Panama, on which are situated the cities of As- 
pinwall and Panama. These are connected by a railroad and 
a ship canal, now in course of construction, will soon join 
them. Aspinwall was destroyed by fire early in 1885, but will 
be rebuilt. Cape Gallinas, the most northern point of South 
America, is in this country. 

Bogota , the capital of the United States of Columbia, is sit- 
uated on a table-land, east of the Magdalena River. 

Ecuador lies south of the United States of Columbia. 

Quito, the capital of Ecuador, is situated almost on the 
equator, yet its climate is that of perpetual spring. Why is 
the climate so mild and equable? 

Guayaquil , the chief seaport of Ecuador, is on the Gulf of 
Guayaquil, an arm of the Pacific. 

Peru is the most mountainous country of South America. 
Its chief source of wealth is guano, which is found on a small 
group of islands near the coast. 

Lima , the capital of Peru, is situated a few miles from the 
Pacific. It is one of the most beautiful cities of South Ameri- 
ca. Its seaport is Callao. 

Chili is situated mainly in the south temperate zone. It re- 
cently acquired by conquest, all of Bolivia that was west of 
the Andes, and the southern portion of Western Peru. Tlv* 
northern part of the country consists of the desert of Atacam 1, 
which is rich in minerals. The central part is a famous graz- 
ing region, and supports large herds of cattle, which are raised 
mainly for their hides and tallow. The southern part of the 


78 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


country is well suited for agriculture, and is the great wheat 
field of vSouth America. Chili, also, claims all of Patagonia 
west of the Andes. 

Santiago , the capital of Chili is situated at the western 
base of the Andes Mountains. 

Valparaiso , “the vale of paradise,” is the principal seaport 
of Chili. “The town is lit with gas, is well paved, and has 
steam fire-engines and street-railways, and a public library.” 
It is the greatest commercial port of the Pacific coast of South 
America. 

Patagonia, the southern country of South America, is unfit 
for agricultural purposes, and has but few white inhabitants. 
The part west of the Andes has a very moist, disagreeable 
climate, and is covered with dense forests. Eastern Patagonia 
has but very little rain, and the southern part of it is a dreary, 
desolate region, with hardly any vegetation. 

The Strait of Magellan separates the island of Terra del 
Fuego from Patagonia. 

Cape Horn , the southern extremity of South America, is 
situated on a small island south of Terra del Fuego. 

The Argentine Republic is situated in the south temperate 
zone. Its greatest source of wealth is the vast herds of cattle 
which roam over the basin of the Rio de la Plata. 

Buenos Ayres , the capital of the Argentine Republic, is an 
important commercial city. 

The Rio de la Plata River is the second river of South 
America in size. Its basin consists of vast grassy plains called 
pampas. It is formed by the union of the Parana and 
Uruguay Rivers. 

Paraguay, a small, inland country of South America, is situ- 
ated between the Paraguay and Parana Rivers. 

Assumption , the capital of Paraguay, has considerable trade 
in Paraguay tea, tobacco, and hides. 

The small country of Uruguay is situated on the left bank 
of the La Plata River, at its entrance into the Atlantic. The 
principal occupation is cattle raising. 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


79 


Montevideo is the capital. 

Brazil, the largest country of South America, has an area 
about equal to that of the United States, exclusive of Alaska, 
and a population about one-fifth as great. It produces con- 
siderable cotton, sugar, and tobacco. Its diamond mines are 
very important. 

Rio Janeiro , the capital of Brazil, and the largest city of 
South America, is situated on Rio Janeiro Bay. It is an im- 
portant commercial city, its chief exports being coffee, cotton, 
sugar, rum, building-timber, leather, tallow, gold, and dia- 
monds. 

Cafe Frio . Bahia is an important commercial city. 

Cafe St. Roque , the most easterly point of South America. 

Amazon , the greatest river of the world, (though not the 
longest), rises in Peru, at first flows northwest, but changes its 
course and flows nearly eastward into the Atlantic Ocean. It 
is ten miles wide at a distance of 500 miles from the Atlantic. 
“The volume and impetus of the river are so great that it car- 
ries its fresh water unmixed into the sea a distance of about 
200 miles.” The basin of the Amazon is covered with mag- 
nificent forests in which are found manv valuable trees and 

j 

plants. 

French Guiana belongs to France, which uses it as a place 
of banishment for political offenders. 

Cayenne , the capital of French Guiana, is situated on an 
island near the coast. It is very unhealthy. 

Dutch Guiana, an important Dutch colony, lies west of 
French Guiana. The most of the inhabitants are negroes and 
mixed races. 

Paramaribo , the capital of Dutch Guiana, is situated on the 
Surinam River. It has considerable commerce. 

British Guiana, the largest and most important of the Gui- 
anas, belongs to Great Britain. The climate is very hot and 
unhealthy. The principal crops are rice, sugar, maize, vanilla, 
tobacco, cinnamon, and chocolate. 


8o 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


Georgetown , the capital of British Guiana, is situated on the 
coast. The most of the streets have canals running* through 
them. The city is an important commercial center. 

The country of Venezuela is situated in the northern part of 
South America, and borders on both the Caribbean Sea and 
the Atlantic Ocean. 

The Orinoco River , the third river of South America in 
size, is almost entirely in Venezuela. The low plains along 
the river aje known as the Llanos . In the rainy season the 
Llanos are covered with water, and the Orinoco presents the 
appearance of a great inland sea on its way to the Ocean. In 
the dry season they are covered with moving hills of sand and 
dust. 

Caracas , the capital of Venezuela, is built on a plateau about 
twelve miles from the coast. It has considerable commerce 
through the port of La Guayra. 

Maracaybo , a lake in the northern part of Venezuela, is con- 
nected with the Caribbean Sea by a narrow channel. 





CHAPTER XI. 


GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 

GTBBLt Britain. — Oil the island of Great Britain, are situa- 
ted the countries of Scotland, England, and Wales. Ireland 
is much smaller than Great Britain, and is situated west of it. 

We shall now sail around each of these islands, and notice 
its principal headlands and indentations, ascend some of its 
chief rivers, observe its mountains, and visit a few of the 
largest cities, so as to learn something about them. And 
when through with our travels, we shall be prepared to talk 
about the surface, climate, crops, and the occupation of the 
people. 

The Shetland Islands are northeast of Scotland and are 
famous for the “Shetland ponies.” 

Duncansby Head is the northeast corner of Scotland. 

In sailing south along the east coast of Scotland, we notice 
that we are on the North Sea, and that it washes the east coast 
of both England and Scotland. 

Moray Firth is an arm of the North Sea. 

Inverness , the most important city in Northern Scotland, is 
on a canal which crosses Scotland from Moray Firth to the 
Atlantic Ocean. 

Kinnaird Head is a cape on the eastern coast of Scotland. 

Aberdeen , noted for the large number of ships built there 
annually, is situated on the North Sea. 

The Grampian Hills cross Scotland from northeast to 
southwest. The part of Scotland north of the Grampians is 
known as the Highlands, the part on the south, as the Low- 
lands. 


(Si) 


82 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


Dundee manufactures the most linen and hemp of any city 
on the Island of Great Britain. 

The Firth of Forth is an arm of the North Sea. 

Edinburgh , the capital of Scotland, is situated two miles 
south of the Firth of Forth. The city is built on very rough 
ground, and the houses rise tier above tier on the steep sides 
of the hills. A person can stand on one street and look down, 
perpendicularly, upon the roofs of houses on the streets below, 
which are six storips high. 

The Tweed River forms a part of the boundary between 
Scotland and England. 

Before proceeding farther let the pupils sketch the east coast 
of Scotland, showing the places that have been studied. 

Newcastle , an important city of England, is noted for its 
large trade in coal, which is mined in the vicinity. Did you 
ever hear the expression, “Carrying Coal to Newcastle”? It 
is also noted for the large number of iron ships built there. 

Hull , or Kingston-upon-Huil, is a very important seaport. 

The Humber is a short estuary, formed by the union of 
several rivers, of which the Ouse and Trent are the principal 
ones. 

York, a very old city, and also noted for its beautiful cathe- 
dral. 

Leeds , noted for the manufacture of woolen goods. 

Sheffield, noted for the manufacture of cutlery. 

Nottingha?n, noted for the manufacture of hosiery and lace. 

Firming ham, the fourth city of England in population, is 
situated near the Trent. It manufactures all kinds of iron, 
steel, and brass goods. 

The Wash is an arm of the North Sea. Notice its shape. 

Observe carefully the shape of the coast line between the 
Wash and the mouth of the Thames River. Sketch the coast 
from Dundee to the Thames. 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


83 


The Tha?nes River rises in the western part of England. 
The basin of the Thames is much smaller than that of the 
Amazon River, but it is far more important. Why so? 

London , the -capital of the British Empire and the largest 
city in the world, is situated on both sides of the Thames 
River. There are more people in the city of London than 
there are in the State of Illinois, with all of its cities, towns, 
villages, and farms. It has the most commerce of any city in 
the world. 

The Strait oj Dover connects the English Channel with the 
North Sea. Notice the shape of the coast between the Thames 
River and the Strait of Dover. 

Ports?nouth is the principal naval station of England. 

Land's End is the southwestern point of England. 

Bristol Channel , an arm of the Atlantic Ocean. 

Severn , one of the principal rivers of England. 

Bristol is an important seaport. 

Sketch the coast from the Wash to the Severn River. 

Mertliyr-Tydjil , in the southern part of Wales, is noted for 
the valuable coal and iron mines in the vicinity. 

St, David's Head is the southwestern point of Wales. 

St, George's Channel separates Ireland from Wales. 

The Irish Sea separates England from Ireland. 

Liverpool, the second city of Great Britain in commercial 
importance, is situated on the Mersey River, near the Irish 
Sea. Vessels from all the important nations of the world 
may be seen in its docks. It is about the size of Chicago. 

Manchester , the leading city of the world in the manufac- 
ture of cotton goods, is situated a few miles north of the Mer- 
sey River. Its population is about equal to that of St. Louis. 
Where does the cotton come from that is used in making all 
these goods? Lead the pupils to see the advantages of com- 
merce. 

The Cumbrian Mountains are in the northwestern part of 
England, and are noted for their beautiful scenery. 


8 4 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY 


Solway Firth , an arm of the Irish Sea. 

The Mull of Galloway is the southwestern corner of Scot- 
land. 

Sketch the coast from Land’s End to Solway Firth, show- 
ing all places studied. 

The North Channel separates Scotland from Ireland. 

Clyde , an important river of Scotland. 

Glasgow , the second city of Great Britain in population, is 
situated on the Clyde River. It is noted for its commerce and 
manufactures. Its principal manufactures are cotton goods, 
silks, and iron ships. 

Observe that the Firth of Clyde is about due west from the 
Firth of Forth, and that the distance between Glasgow and 
Edinburgh is not very great. 

The Hebrides Islands are west of the northern part of 
Scotland. 

Sketch the island of Great Britain as a whole, and show the 
position of all places studied. 

The surface of Scotland is very rough especially north of 
the Grampian Hills. South of there, some low land is found, 
but the area is comparatively small. 

The climate of Scotland is mild and healthful. 

The chief crops are wheat, oats, barley, rye, and vegetables. 
Oat meal is one of the staple articles of food in the Highlands. 

The fisheries of Scotland are very valuable, and furnish em- 
ployment to a great many persons. 

The southeastern half of England is comparatively low and 
level, and produces large crops of wheat, oats, rye, barley, 
vegetables, and fruits. 

The northwestern half of England, and all of Wales are 
very rough, but excellent crops are produced in the valleys. 
The whole island is well suited for grazing purposes, and 
cattle raising is very profitable. 

In the northern and central parts of England, and also in 
Wales, coal and iron are found in abundance, and manufactur- 
ing is carried on, on a large scale. 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


85 


Great Britain is especially noted for its immense commerce. 
Its ships can be found on all seas, and its traders in all the 
markets of the world. 

Ireland.— 

Londonder?y , an important city of Northern Ireland, is situ- 
ated on the Foyle River. 

The Giant's Causeway is a rocky cape at the northeast 
corner of Ireland. 

Belfast , noted for its manufacture of linen. 

Dublin , the capital of Ireland, is situated on the Liffey River, 
at its entrance into the Irish Sea. It is the largest city of Ire- 
land, and has considerable commerce, and some manufactures. 

Carnsore Point , is the southeastern corner of Ireland. Note 
the position of this point with reference to Southwestern 
Wales. 

Cork , the great commercial center of Southern Ireland, is 
situated on the River Lee, near its entrance into Cork Harbor. 

Cape Clear is the southwestern point of Ireland. 

Shannon , the largest river of Ireland. 

Limerick, the principal seaport on the west coast of Ireland. 

Malin Head is the northern point of Ireland. 

Sketch Ireland. 

The coastline of Ireland is very irregular, being indented 
by many bays which form safe and convenient harbors. 

The surface is very uneven. In the center is a great plain, 
extending from the Irish Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. North 
and south of this plain are found many isolated mountain sys- 
tems. 

The climate is very moist, and without extremes of heat or 
cold. 

Wheat, oats, barley, rye, potatoes, and turnips are the prin- 
cipal crops. Cattle raising is a profitable industry. 

Minerals are not found in sufficient quantities to pay for 
mining. 


CHAPTER XII. 


NORWAY, SWEDEN, NORTHWESTERN RUSSIA, DENMARK, 

HOLLAND AND GERMANY. 

North Cape is the northern point of Europe. 

Ha?nmerfest , the most northern town of Europe, is an im- 
portant fishing station. 

Call attention to the eiodit or ten weeks continuous sun- 

O 

light at this place in the summer; and to the absence of the 
sunlight for the same length of time in the winter. It will 
interest the children. 

Bergen , the second city of Norway in population, has a 
large trade in fish. 

The Naze is the southern point of Norway. 

Skager Rack Channel separates Norway from Denmark. 

Christiania , the capital of Norway, is situated at the head 
of a bay of the same name. It is an important commercial city. 

Cattegat C hannel separates Denmark from Sweden. 

Goteborg , the second city of Sweden in size, is situated east 
of the north end of Denmark. 

The Baltic Sea . 

Carlskrona , a strongly fortified city of Sweden, is situated 
on several small islands in the Baltic. 

Stockholm , the capital of Sweden, is built partly on islands 
in the outlet of Lake Maelar. Small steamers are used very 
extensively for travel in the city. 

The Gulf of Bothnia is the northern part of the Baltic Sea. 

We have now sailed around the peninsula of Scandinavia, 
observed its shape, and located a few of its principal capes and 
cities. Let the pupils make a sketch of the peninsula, show- 
ing the points learned. 


( 86 ) 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


*7 


The Scandinavian Mountains extend from the northern 
point of the peninsula to near the Naze, and their line of 
highest elevation forms the boundary, for most of the distance, 
between Norway and Sweden. The Norwegian slope of the 
mountains is not, on an average, more than one-fourth as wide 
as the Swedish slope, hence the surface of Norway is much 
more broken than that of Sweden. 

Where the nature of the surface admits of it, farming is the 
leading occupation of the people. Sweden produces large 
crops of wheat, oats, rye, barley, and vegetables. The south- 
ern part of Norway is a fair farming country, but the northern 
part is too rough. 

Fishing furnishes employment for a large number of 
persons, and many of the people of both countries are engaged 
in felling trees and making them into lumber. 

The people who live in Norway are called Norwegians, 
and those who live in Sweden are called Swedes. Have you 
ever seen any of either? 

Lapland is situated partly in Norway and Sweden and part- 
ly in Russia. It is a cold, dreary region, unfit for farming. 
The inhabitants are short in stature, but very strong. Those 
who dwell near the shore, live mainly by fishing, and those 
who reside in the interior of the country depend almost alto- 
gether on their reindeer for a livehood. There are no cities 
in the country. 

Finland is a province of Russia, and is situated on the east 
side of the Gulf of Bothnia, south of Lapland'. It is noted for 
its large number of lakes. There are a few small cities in 
the southern part of the country. 

Gulf of Finland , a long, narrow arm of the Baltic Sea. 

St. Petersburg , the capital of Russia, is situated on the 
Neva River, near its mouth. The city is built on very low r 
ground, and is about the size of Philadelphia. The climate is 
very cold in the winter. 


88 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


Lake Ladoga, the largest lake of Europe, is east of St. 
Petersburg; the Neva River is its outlet. 

The Gulf of Danzig is an arm of the Baltic Sea. 

Vistula , an important river of Northern Europe. 

Danzig, the principal grain market of Germany, on the 
Baltic Sea, is situated on the Vistula, near its mouth. Many 
of its streets have canals passing through them. 

Warsaw, an important city of Russia, is extensively en- 
gaged in manufacturing. 

Lubeck, the oldest city on the Baltic, has considerable com- 
merce, and is largely engaged in building ships. 

Sketch the east coast of the Baltic Sea. 

Passing out of the Baltic Sea by the same route that we en- 
tered, we come to 

0 

Copenhagen, the capital of Denmark. The city is built on 
an island, and is one of the great commercial centers of 
Europe. 

The kingdom of Denmark occupies the northern half of the 
peninsula of Jutland, and several adjacent islands. 

The surface of the country is comparatively level, but the 
soil is not very fertile. Yet, by careful farming, large crops 
are raised. Much attention is given to the rearing of live stock. 
The people of Denmark are called Danes. 

Sailing south on the North Sea, we soon come to the 

Elbe River, which rises in the northern part of the Austrian 
Empire, and flows northwest into the North Sea. 

Harnburg, the foremost city of the continent in Commerce, 
is situated in the northern part of Germany, on the Elbe 
River. The largest ocean vessels ascend the river to the city. 

Berlin, the capital of Germany, is situated on the Spree 
River; it is about as large as New York. Its manufactures are 
very valuable. 

Dresden, the most pleasant city in Germany, is noted for 
its many beautiful works of art. 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


89 


Weser River . Bremen , an important seaport of Ger- 
many, is noted for the large number of emigrants who sail 
from there to America. 

The Zuider Zee is an arm of the North Sea. 

Amsterdcun , the largest city of Holland, is built on ninety 
islands, in an arm of the Zuider Zee. The different parts of 
the city are connected by three hundred and fifty bridges. 
Canals pass through all parts of the city. Amsterdam is a 
very important commercial city. 

The Rhine River enters the North Sea through several 
mouths. 

The Hague , the capital of Holland, is situated near the 
North Sea, between two of the mouths of the Rhine. It is a 
beautiful city, with broad streets, and large squares full of 
trees. 

Rotterdam , the most thriving city of Holland and one of its 
great commercial centers. 

Holla7id is one of the smaller countries of Europe, and looks 
out upon the North Sea, from which much of its soil had to 
be won. How? 

The surface is low and level. 'A large part of the country 
is so very low that it has to be protected from the North Sea 
by means of dykes. 

The country is crossed in all directions by canals which 
serve both for the draining of the land, and as a means of com- 
munication,. Canals run from town to town, and from there 
to villages which are themselves connected by other canals. 

Agriculture and commerce are the chief occupations of the 
people. 

Ascending the Rhine River, we come to 

Cologne , situated on the west bank of the Rhine, in 
the northwestern part of Germany. The city is noted for the 
manufacture of perfumery. 

Coblenz , an important commercial city. 


• 90 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


Mainz , a famous military station, is situated on the Rhine 
River, opposite the mouth of the Main River. Note carefully 
the shape of the Rhine between Coblenz and Mainz. 

Frankfort , one of the great money marts of Europe, is on 
the Main River. 

Strassbiirg is an important city of Germany. The Cathe- 
dral of Strassburg is noted for its beauty, and for the height of 
its spire. 

Basel , an important commercial city, is situated on the left 
bank of the Rhine, in the northwestern part of Switzerland. 
Observe the great bend of the Rhine, near this city. 

Bern , the capital of Switzerland, is situated on the Aar 
River. 

Lake Constance , an expansion of the Rhine, is bordered by 
the countries of Austria, Germany, and Switzerland. 

The Rhine River rises among the Alps Monntains, near the 
southern boundary of Switzerland. 

Sketch the Rhine River, showing its tributaries and prin- 
cipal cities. Name the countries through which it passes, and 
those between which it forms the boundary. 

The German Empire consists of a number of kingdoms, 
duchies, and principalities. 

The surface slopes to the north, being mountainous in the 
south, and low and level in the north. 

The climate is cold-temperate, and nearly alike in the dif- 
ferent parts of the empire. 

The principal crops are rye, wheat, barley, flax, hemp, pota- 
toes, sugar-beet, hops, and tobacco. The nation does not pro- 
duce quite grain enough for its own wants. 

Germany is rich in coal, iron, zinc, lead, and copper mines. 
It ranks next to England and the United States in its iron 
works. It is extensively engaged in the manufacture of linen, 

cotton, and woolen goods, Its glass works and potteries are 
very important, but are far surpassed in value by the products 
of its breweries and distilleries. 


CHAPTER XIII, 


BELGIUM, FRANCE, SPAIN, PORTUGAL, AND SWITZERLAND. 

Antwerp , the second city of Belgium in population, is on 
the Schelde River. It is noted both for its commerce and im- 
portant manufactures. 

Brussels , the capital and largest city of Belgium, is situa- 
ted on a southern tributary of the Schelde. The city is noted 
for the manufacture of fine laces, carpets, linens, silks, cottons, 
ribbons, and machinery. 

Waterloo , a famous battle field, is situated nine miles south 
of Brussels. 

Ghent , the third city of Belgium in population, is situated 
on the Schelde, in the northwestern part of the country. Rivers 
and canals divide the city into twenty-four islands. It is an 
important commercial and manufacturing city. 

Belgium is a small country, and has the most persons to the 
square mile of any country in Europe. 

With the exception of a few hills in the southeast the coun 
try is low and level. 

The soil is carefully tilled and made to yield large crops of 
wheat, rye, oats, flax, hops, potatoes, hemp and tobacco. 

Owing to the abundance of coal and iron in the country, 
manufacturing is carried on very extensively. The chief arti- 
cles manufactured are fire-arms, cutlery, cotton and linen goods, 
carpets, machinery, lace, and paper. 

Bound Belgium. 

Lille , or Lisle , the fifth city of France in population, is situ- 
ated in the northwestern part of the country. It is the princi- 
pal seat of the French linen and cotton manufactures. 

(90 


92 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


Calais , a fortified seaport of F ranee, is situated on the Strait 
of Dover. A large number of travelers cross the strait from 
England to Calais, annually. 

LeHavre , the principal port of Western France, is situated 
at the mouth of the Seine River. It has a very extensive 
commerce. 

Paris , the capital of F ranee, is situated on both banks of the 
Seine River. It is about as far north as the northern boun- 
dary of the United States, and is about twice as large as the 
city of New York. Paris is a beautiful city, and has much to 
charm and delight those who visit it. 

Brest , next to Toulon the greatest naval arsenal of France, 
is situated on the peninsula of Brittany. The city is connect- 
ed with a little town near Boston by a telegraph cable. 

Bay of Biscay . 

Orleans , a famous historical city of F ranee. 

St. Etienne , “the Pittsburg of France,” owes its prosperity 
to the immense coal fields by which it is surrounded. The 
city is noted for the manufacture of iron ware of all kinds, and 
silk ribbons 

The Gironde River. Bordeaux, the third port of France 
in importance, is surrounded by the great vine-growing regions 
of the country; its chief exports are wines, brandies, and fruits. 

The Pyrenees Mountains . Sketch the coast of F ranee from 
Belgium to the Pyrenees. 

Cafe Ortegal is the northwestern corner of Spain. 

Ferrol , situated south of Cape Ortegal, is a great naval sta- 
tion and fortress. 

Cafe Finisterre is the western point of Spain. 

Douro , a river of Spain and Portugal. 

Oporto is the second city of Portugal in population and com- 
mercial importance and the first in manufactures. The coun- 
try around Oporto is largely engaged in the cultivation of the 
vine. 

Tagus , a river of Spain and Portugal. 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


93 


Lisbon, the capital and largest city of Portugal, and its most 
important commercial center. 

Madrid , the capital of Spain, is in the midst of a very bar- 
ren district. 

Cape St . Vincent is tne southwest corner of Portugal. 

Guadalquivir , the only river of Spain that is navigable for 
any considerable distance. 

Seville is noted for the manufacture of silks and stuffs inter- 
woven with gold. 

Cadiz , an important commercial city of Spain, is on a small 
island near the coast. 

The Strait of Gibraltar is about fifteen miles wide in the 
narrowest part. 

Gibraltar , the strongest fortress in the world, is on the 
north side of the Strait of Gibraltar. It belongs to Great Brit- 
ain. 

Malaga , one of the leading commercial cities of Spain, is 
situated on the Mediterranean Sea. Its chief exports are rais- 
ins, almonds, figs, lemons, oranges, and wine. 

The Ebro River . Pyrenees Mountains . 

In passing around the peninsula, call attention to the paral- 
lelism of the rivers flowing into the Atlantic. Show that in 
goingnorth or south through Spain, mountain chains and river 
basins will be found alternating. 

Both Spain and Portugal are rich in minerals, especially 
iron, copper, lead, coal, and mercury. 

Cork is a product of both countries. Is it a mineral? 

Sketch Spain and Portugal. 

The Gulf of Lyons is an arm of the Mediterranean Sea. 

In ascending the Rhone River, we notice that the Cevennes 
Mountains are on the west and the Alps Mountains on the 
east. The latter are on the boundary between France and 

Italy. There is a railroad passing from France into Italy 
through a tunnel eight miles in length. What long tunnel 
have we already learned about? 


94 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


Lyons , at the junction of the Saone and Rhone Rivers, is 
the great center of the silk industry in France. 

Geneva , the largest city of Switzerland, is at the western 
extremity of Lake Geneva. Its leading manufactures are 
watches, music boxes, and jewelry. 

Lake Geneva is the largest lake of Western Europe. 

Mt. Blanc, the highest point of Europe, is at the junction of 
France, Italy, and Switzerland. 

The Rhone River rises on the slopes of Mt. St. Gothard. 

What other rivers rise on the same mountain? 

Before leaving Switzerland, review thoroughly all that has 
been learned concerning it. Picture to your pupils its grand 
mountains, beautiful lakes, and swift flowing rivers. Let them 
bring in any picture they may have of any of these objects. 

Switzerland is a Republic. 

Alarseilles , the leading commercial city of the Mediterra- 
nean, is in the southeastern part of F ranee. 

Toidon is the great naval station of France on the Mediter 
ranean. 

The surface of France is comparatively low and level in the 
west, and high and rough in the east and southeast. 

Farming is the leading occupation of the people, France be- 
ing one of the best agricultural countries in the world. The 
leading crops are wheat, oats, barley, grapes, vegetables, and 
tobacco. 

Trance is a republic. 

Review all that has been studied about France, and have 
the pupils make a sketch of the country. When the sketch is 
finished, let them name the surrounding countries and waters. 
As a further test of their knowledge of the work, let them ar- 
range the points studied, in the form of a scheme. The ac- 
companying form will answer, if a better one is not thought 
of at the time. 


i. Boundaries. 




v 


1. Belgium. 

2. Germany. 

3. Switzerland. 

4. Italy. 

5. Mediterranean Sea. 

6. Spain. 

7. Atlantic Ocean. 

8. English Channel. 

9. Strait of Dover. 


2. Bays. 


1. Biscay. 

2. Lyons. 


f 1. West — Low and Level. 

3. Surface. -! I 1. Alps. 

( 2. East and Southeast. •< 2. Cevennes. 

( 3. Pyrenees. 


S’ 


ivers, 


1 


1. Seine. 

2. Loire. 


] 3. Gironde. 

I a. R hnnp. 


( 1. Agriculture. 

5. Chief Industries. ■< 2. Manufactures. 

( 3. Commerce. 


1. Commercial. ^ 


r 1. Calais. 

2. Le Havre. 

3. Paris. 

4. Bordeaux. 

^ 5. Marseilles. 

2. Historical. — Orleans. 

( 1. Lille, or Lisle. 

3. Manufacturing. •< 2. St. Etienne. 

( 3 - Lyons. 

4. Naval Stations. \ 1 ' S les ] t ‘ 

^ ( 2. 1 oulon. 

7. Government — Republic. 


6. Cities. < 


( 95 ) 


CHAPTER XIV. 


ITALY, MONTENEGRO, GREECE, AND TURKEY. 

Genoa , the birthplace of Columbus, is the chief commercial 
city of Italy. 

Florence , “the city of flowers,” is noted for its art galleries 
and museums. 

Corsica , an island west of Italy, belongs to France. It is 
the birthplace of Napoleon the Great. 

The island of Sardinia is south of Corsica. It belongs to 
Italy 

Rome , the capital of Italy, is situated on the Tiber River. 
It is the residence of the Pope and contains the largest church 
(St. Peter’s) in the world. 

Naples, situated on a beautiful bay of the same name, is the 
most populous city of Italy, and ranks next to Genoa in com- 
mercial importance. 

Alt. Vesuvius , an active volcano. Strait of Messina. 

Palermo , the principal city of Sicily. 

The Strait of Otranto connects the Adriatic Sea with the 
Mediterranean. 

The Po River flows east into the Adriatic Sea. It is about 
as far north as the northern boundary of New York and Ver- 
mont. Observe that the basin of the Po is surrounded by 
mountains on three sides. 

Milan , one of the leading cities of Italy, is situated in a 
fertile plain north of the Po River. It is noted for its 
beautiful cathedral. 

Turin , an important manufacturing city, is situated on the 
Po. One of the principal tributaries of the Po rises on Mt. 
St. Gothard. What other rivers rise on this mountain? 

(90 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


97 


A railroad tunnel, ten miles in length, passes through the 
St. Gothard Pass, connecting Italy and Switzerland. Tell 
how these tunnels have been built. 

Venice , situated in the northwestern part of Italy on the 
Gulf of Venice, is built on eighty islands, and intersected by 
one hundred and forty-seven canals. It has considerable com- 
merce. Mention other cities in which there are many canals. 

Sketch Italy, and fix its northern boundary. 

The surface of Italy may be divided into two grand divis- 
ions, the basin of the Po, and the boot-shaped peninsula on the 
south. The peninsular part of Italy is traversed throughout 
its entire length by the Apennine Mountains, which form its 
water-shed. The mountains are east of the center, hence, the 
largest plains and longest rivers are on the west side. 

On account of its position, and great length from north to 
south, Italy enjoys a varied, and delightful climate, which per- 
mits the cultivation of all the common grains and fruits, and a 
variety of tropical products. The island of Sicily is famous 
for its oranges and lemons. 

Italy is rich in marble, sulphur, borax, alum, and alabaster. 

Austria joins Italy on the east, and extends south along the 
eastern side of the Adriatic for a considerable distance. 

Trieste , the chief commercial city of Austria, is situated at 
the head of the Adriatic Sea, east of Venice. Merchants from 
all civilized nations come here to trade. 

The principality of Montenegro is situated on the east side 
of the Adriatic, south of Austria. It is very mountainous. 

Cettinje is the capital. 

South of Montenegro, Turkey borders on the Adriatic. 

Strait of Otranto . 

The Gulf of Lepanto almost divides Greece into two parts. 

The peninsula, south of the Gulf of Lepanto, is named the 
Morea . 

Cape Matapan is the southern point of the mainland of 
Greece. 

Sparta , anciently a very famous city. 

Candia , or Crete , a large island south of Greece, belongs 
to Turkey. 

The City of Corinth is situated on the isthmus which con- 
nects the Morea with the rest of Greece. 


9 8 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


Athens , the capital of Greece, is situated a few miles inland. 

Negropont , Eubcea , is a long, narrow island, east of 

Greece. 

The surface of Greece is very mountainous, and because of 
the difficulty of building roads, the different parts of the coun- 
try have but little intercourse. 

The ordinary grains are raised, and tobacco, madder, figs, 
and oranges can be profitably cultivated. But agriculture 
progresses slowly, only one-seventh of the area being under 
cultivation. 

Olympus, a very famous mountain, is situatecLin the southern 
part of Turkey, west of the Gulf of Salonica. 

Scilonicci , a city of Turkey, is on the Gulf of Salonica. 

Adrianople. an important city of Turkey, is noted for the 
manufacture of Attar of Roses. 

The Strait of Dardanelles . Marmora Sea , noted for the 
marble quarries on its islands. 

Bospomis , a narrow strait, connecting the Sea of Marmora 
with the Black Sea. 

Constantinople , the capital and largest city of Turkey, is 
situated on the European side of the Bosporus, at its junction 
with the Sea of Marmora. The city is a great commercial 
center. 

Black Sea. The Balkan Mountains may he said to form 
the northern boundary of Turkey, as the province between 
the Balkans and the Danube is almost entirely independent of 
Turkish control. 

The surface of Turkey is diversified with mountain, plain, 
and valley. Nearly all of it is well fitted for farming, but that 
noblest of callings is carried on in a very slovenly manner. 

The principal crops are wheat, rye, oats, and barley in the 
north; and maize, cotton, olives, citrons, and tobacco in the 
south. Did you ever see any maize? 

The leading minerals are iron, lead, salt, and marble ; but 
none of these are mined in sufficient quantities to' be of much 
benefit to the nation. 

The manufactures of Turkey are varied, but are all on a 
small scale, 


CHAPTER XV. 


ROUMANIA, SERVIA, AUSTRIA, AND RUSSIA. 

The Danube River rises in the southwestern part of Germany, 
near the great bend of the Rhine at Basel, and flows in a gen- 
eral southeasterly direction into the Black Sea. On the north 
side of the river, at its mouth, is Russia, and on the south side 
is Roumania. 

The Pruth River , a northern tributary of the Danube, 
forms the boundary between Russia and Roumania. 

Roumania , an independent Kingdom of Europe, is bound- 
ed on the north by Austria and Russia, on the east by Russia 
and the Black Sea, on the south by Turkey (nominally), and 
on the west by Servia and Austria. It is an agricultural 
country, and each head of a family is entitled to apiece of land 
containing from seven to sixty -seven acres. Grain is the prin- 
cipal export. 

Bukharest , the capital of Roumania, is situated north of the 
Danube River. It is one of the most populous cities of South- 
eastern Europe. 

Servia is an independent Kingdom of Europe. Its surface 
is everywhere very rocky and mountainous, except along the 
Save River. 

Agriculture is in a backward state, and manufactures can 
hardly be said to exist. 

Belgrade , the capital of Servia, is situated at the junction of 
the Save River with the Danube. It has considerable com- 
merce. 

The Save River is on the boundary between Austria and 
Servia. 


( 99 ) 


loo 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


The Austrian Empire consists of several countries and prov- 
inces, Hungary and Bohemia being the most important. 

Hungary consists of a large, low plain, and is situated in 
the midst of the empire. 

Buda-Pesth , the capital of Hungary is situated on both 
banks of the Danube, a short distance from one of its principal 
bends. The two parts of the city are connected by two iron 
bridges. It is growing rapidly, and has a very extensive com- 
merce. 

Bohemia , a country of the Austrian Empire, is situated in 
the basin of the Elbe River. It is surrounded by mountains on 
all sides. 

Prague , the capital of Bohemia, is situated on a branch of 
the Elbe River. 

Vienna , the capital of the Austrian Empire, is situated on 
the Danube River. It is a well built city, and has the largest 
park in Europe. It is extensively engaged in the manufacture 
of silks, carriages, steam engines, and machinery. 

The Austrian Empire is well suited to f arming, r and the 
great wealth of the nation consists largely in agricultural pro- 
ducts. The principal crops are wheat, oats, barley, potatoes, 
sugar-beet, flax, hemp, tobacco, and olive oil. 

The chief minerals are coal, iron, salt, sulphur, gold, and 
silver. 

A large share of the commerce of the nation is carried on 
by way of the Danube River. 

Russia, — Review what has already been learned about 
Russia, and in the further study of the country notice that it 
includes most of the lowland of Europe, and comprises more 
than half of the whole continent. 

The principal watershed of Russia extends from southwest 
to northeast* And as it is north of the center of the empire, 
the longest rivers flow south into the Black and Caspian Seas. 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


ioi 


The climate is very cold, and the winters are long and severe 
in all parts of the empire. But the summers, though short, 
are very hot. 

Russia is an agricultural country and produces the most 
grain of any country in Europe. The principal crops are rye, 
oats, wheat, and barley. In the production of flax and hemp, 
Russia equals the rest of Europe. 

The chief minerals are coal, iron, gold, platinum and cop- 
per. 

The principal manufactures are woolens, silks, linens, cot- 
ton, soap, and porcelain. 

Odessa , the principal seaport of Russia, is situated on the 
Black Sea, west of the mouth of the Dnieper River. It ex- 
ports large quantities of wheat, wool, tallow, and flax. 

Dnieper , one of the largest rivers of Russia. 

Sabastopol, a strongly fortified city. 

The Sea of Azov . The Caucasus Mountains , are on the 
boundary between Europe and Asia. The Russian posses- 
sions extend south of the Caucasus. 

The Caspian Sea, Volga , the largest river of Europe, 
rises in the northwestern part of Russia, and flows southeast 
into the Caspian Sea. 

Astrakhan , an important city, is noted for its valuable fish- 
eries. 

Moscow , situated almost in the center of the empire, is in 
the basin of the Volga. It is the most famous city in Russia. 

The Ural Mountains are on the boundary between Europe 
and Asia. 

The Arctic Ocean, 

Let the pupils complete the scheme on the next page. 


i. Boundaries. 


< 


2. Surface. 


Russia. < 


3. River9. 


4. Lake. 


i 


r 1. Agricultural. 


5. Chief Products. ^ 2. Mineral. 


3, Manufactures. 


6. Cities. 




/ 


2. 

3 - 

4 - 

5 - 

6 . 


(10a) 


CHAPTER XVI. 


SIBERIA, JAPAN, COREA, CHINA, ANAM, CAMBODIA, SIAM, 

AND BURMAH. 

Asia is the largest of the continents, and is almost an island. 

Nearly all of the highlands are in the interior, and sur- 
rounded by lowlands. The great plateau of Central Asia is 
the largest in the world. It is bounded on the north by the 
Altai Mountains and on the south by the Himalaya mountains. 
The largest part of the plateau is a desert. 

Siberia. — The great plain which stretches from the Altai 
Mountains to the Arctic Ocean, and from the Ural Mountains 
to Behring Strait is known as Siberia, and belongs to Russia. 
It is a cold, dreary region, facing the North pole, and is inhab- 
ited by uncivilized, wandering tribes, and by prisoners exiled 
from Russia in Europe. 

A few of the hardier grains and vegetables grow in the 
valleys of the south, but the northern part of the country is a 
barren waste, frozen to unknown depths, and never thawing 
more than a few inches in the 'short, hot summer. 

If we start from the northwestern corner of Siberia and travel 
east, we come to the 

Gulf of Obi , an arm of the Arctic Ocean. 

Obi River , one of the principal rivers of Siberia. 

The. Yenisei River rises among the Altai Mountains, and 
flows north into the Arctic Ocean. 

Irkoutsk , the largest city of Siberia, is on a tributary of the 
Yenisei. It is an important commercial city. 

Lake Baikal , the largest body of fresh water in Asia, is 

situated among the Altai Mountains. 

(103) 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


104 


Northeast Cape is the most northern point of Asia. 

The Lena River is one of the great rivers of the world. It 
is about six miles wide at a distance cf 800 miles from its 
mouth. 

Behring Strait. 

Aleutian Islands , a chain of islands extending from Asia to 
America, belong to the United States. They furnish large 
quantities of valuable furs. 

Kamchatka Peninsula . 

A?noor River separates, in part, the Chinese Empire from 
Siberia. 

Sketch the northern and eastern coasts of Siberia. 

Japan. — The Empire of Japan consists of nearly 4000 
islands, but the most of them are very small. 

It may justly be termed a mountainous country. Some of 
the mountains are very high, and among them are several vol- 
canoes. Much of the surface is unfit for cultivation on account 
of its rugged nature; some of the mountains abound in gold, 
silver, copper and coal. 

The climate is warm-temperate, consequently the vegeta- 
tion is luxuriant in the lowlands. The principal products are 
rice, cotton, tea, wheat, barley, Indian corn, and silk. 

Tokio , the capital of Japan, is situated on Niphon, the lar- 
gest of the Japan islands. The city is nearly as large as 
Philadelphia. 

China. — The Chinese Empire is the principal nation of 
Eastern Asia. It is situated on the Pacific Ocean, opposite 
the United States. 

The surface is low in the east, hilly in the center, and moun- 
tainous in the west. The basins of two great rivers — Hoang- 
Ho and Yang-tse-Kiang — extend through the empire from 
west to east. The mountains are rich in gold, silver, copper^ 
lead, iron, and coal. 

In Northern China, wheat, millet, buckwheat, Indian corn, 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


105 


and Irish potatoes are cultivated. Excellent cotton is also 
produced in large quantities. I11 Southern China, rice, sugar- 
cane, and tropical fruits abound. Tea and silk are among the 
leading productions of the country, and form its principal ex- 
ports. 

Corea , “ the hermit kingdom,” is on a peninsula, southeast 
of China. 

Peking 9 the capital and largest city of China, is in the 
northern part of the Empire. In size it ranks with Berlin, 
Vienna, and New York. The most of the houses are only 
one story high, the floor is of earth or brick, and the windows 
of oiled paper. 

Hoang-Ho, “ Yellow River,” one of the principal rivers of 
China, flows into the Yellow Sea. 

Tang-tse-Kiang , “son of the sea,” the largest river of 
China, rises in the western part of the Empire, and flows east 
into the Pacific Ocean. It ranks with the Mississippi and 
Amazon in size and importance. 

Shang-Hai is an important commercial city. 

Por?nosa Island is noted for its exports of rice, camphor, 
coal, and tea. 

Hong-Kong 9 one of the great centers of foreign trade in 
China, is situated on the Island of Hong-Kong. It belongs 
to Great Britain. 

Canton , the chief commercial city of China, is situated in 
the southern part of the country, on the Canton River. It is 
the great center of silk manufacture in China. 

finam. — The country of Anam lies south of China. It 
consists of three provinces, Tonquin, Cochin China, and Lower 
Cochin China. The last belongs to the French, who at pres- 
ent claim a protectorate over the whole kingdom. The pro- 
ductions are about the same as those of Southern China. 

Hue is the capital of Anam. 

Saigon is the capital of Lower Cochin China. 


1 06 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


Cambodia River forms the boundary, in part, between 
Anam and Siam. 

Ca?nbodia is a small country in the southeastern part of Asia. 

Paiiomfiin , the capital of Cambodia, consists largely of 
bamboo huts. 

Gulf of Siam . 

. 

Siam. — The country of Siam lies northwest of Cambodia. 

The seasons are two in number, a wet or hot season, and a 
dry or cool one. Vegetation is luxuriant and plentiful; more 
than half the country is covered with forests. 

Rice, sugar, pepper, cotton, and hemp are the chief produc- 
tions. 

Bangkok , the capital of Siam, extends four or five miles along 
both banks of the Menam River. The majority of the 
houses are either built upon rafts floating in the river, or on 
piles driven along the banks. 

Singapore , an important commercial city, is situated south 
of the Malay Peninsula. Ships can be found here, loading 
for all parts of the world with spices, rattan, oil, etc. It be- 
longs to Great Britain. 

1 he Malay Peninsula is a long, narrow strip of land, be 
longing to Great Britain, Siam, and a few native princes. 

The Strait of Malacca separates the island of Sumatra 
from the Malay Peninsula. 

Bay of Bengal. 

British Bur mah , a strip of country along the east coast of 
the Bay of Bengal. Rangoon is its capital. 

Irrawaddy River , one of the great rivers of Asia, rises in 
the western part of the Chinese Empire, and flows into the 
Bay of Bengal. 

Burmah . This countrv lies north of British Burmah and 

•/ 

Siam. It is well fitted for agriculture, which is carried on, 
however, in a very primitive manner. But, owing to the 
great fertility of the soil, large quantities of rice, maize, millet, 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


10 7 

wheat, cotton, tobacco, and indigo are produced. Pine apples, 
oranges, and papaws are the principal fruits. 

Mandalay , the capital of Burmah, is on the Irrawaddy 
River. Most of the houses are made of bamboos and mats, 
and are thatched over with grass; only foreigners are allowed 
to live in brick houses. 



CHAPTER XVII. 


INDIA, BELOOCHISTAN, AFGHANISTAN, TURKESTAN, PERSIA 

AND ASIATIC TURKEY. 

India occupies the central one of three great peninsulas 
that project southward from the mainland of Asia. It is 
bounded on the north by the Himalaya Mountains, on the east 
by Burmah and Siam, on the south by the Bay of Bengal and 
the Arabian Sea, and on the west by Beloochistan and Af- 
ghanistan. 

The surface of India consists of the basins of the Ganges 
and Indus, and the table-land of the Deccan. The soil is very 
fertile and is made to yield two crops a year. Rice, Indian 
corn, sugar-cane, cotton and indigo grow in the summer; 
wheat, potatoes, oats, barley and cabbage in the winter. 

The houses of the poor are made of mud, and have no doors 
or windows toward the street. The country belongs to Great 
Britain. We will begin with: 

Bralwnafiootra , one of the chief rivers of Asia. It rises 
north of the Himalayas, and flows south into the Bay of 
Bengal. 

Ganges , the sacred river of the Hindoos, has its source in 
the Himalayas, and flows into the Bay of Bengal through 
several mouths. 

Calcutta , the capital, and largest city of India, is situated on 
the Hoogly River, the principal mouth of the Ganges. It has 
a very extensive commerce; rice, opium, indigo, cotton and 
raw silk being the chief exports. 

Delhi , the center of Mohammedan learning and religion in 
India, is situated on a tributary of the Ganges. It was for- 

(ioS) 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


109 


merly the capital of the country, and was renowned for its 
great wealth and splendor. • 

Madras , one of the principal cities of India, is situated on 
the west coast of the Bay of Bengal. 

Ceylon , a large island south of India, belongs to Great Brit- 
ain. The cocoa-nut palms are very abundant on the island, 
and are to the people, food, drink and clothing. Have we 
any such tree? Any animal that does about all that the cocoa- 
nut does? Coffee is one of the staple productions of Ceylon. 

Cape Comorin is the southern point of the mainland ot 
India. 

Bombay , a large city of India, situated on the Arabian Sea, 
is next to Calcutta in population and commercial importance. 

7 he Indus River rises north of the Himalayas. 

Cashmere , a small country, about the size of Connecticut, 
is situated on the southern slope of the Himalayas, near the 
Indus. It is noted for its shawls. Capital, Cashmere. 

Make a sketch of India, showing the mountains, rivers and 
cities mentioned in the text. 

Bela Deinstall is a mountainous country west of India. 
The climate and productions vary 'with the elevation. In the 
low, hot plains, rice, sugar-cane and tobacco are produced; 
while in other parts, wheat, barley, madder, melons and pome- 
granates are the principal productions. 

The people are not very highly civilized, but understand 
some of the ruder arts and manufactures. They live in tribes, 
each subject to its own chief, and all subject to the “ great 
Khan of Kelat,” whose rule is absolute. The capital is Kelat. 

Afghanistan, — Lies north of Beloochistan, which country 
it so closely resembles that no separate description is neces- 
sary. The people are very brave. The Hindoo Koosh 
Mountains extend east and west through the northern part of 
the country. Capital, Cabool. 


no 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


Independent Turkestan. — “The land of the Turks,” 
lies north of Afghanistan and Persia. Russia has annexed 
nearly all of this country to her own domain, and now joins 
Afghanistan and Persia, a fact which is not at all pleasing to 
Great Britain. Why? The people, customs and productions 
of the country resemble those of Beloochistan and Afghanis- 
tan. Locate the Aral Sea. 

Persia. — A country of Southwestern Asia, is situated 
mainly on the great plateau of Iran. 

Owingto its elevation, the greater part of Persia has a very 
cold climate in winter, while the lowland along the Persian 
Gulf has an excessively hot climate in summer. There are no 
rivers of importance in Persia, and lack of water is one of the 
great drawbacks to the nation’s prosperity. 

The principal productions are rice, indigo, madder and 
tobacco. 

The commerce of Persia is considerable, and is carried on 
mainly on the backs of camels. Capital, Teheran. 

The Strait of Ormuz connects the Persian Gulf and the 
Arabian Sea. 

The Persian Gulf is between Persia and Arabia; it has 
valuable pearl fisheries. 


Asiatic Turkey may be divided into the basins of the 
Tigris and Euphrates rivers, Arabia, Syria and Asia Minor. 
Much of it is a desert, and the fertile portion is, in general, 
very poorly cultivated. The principal crops are wheat, barley, 
millet, dates, coffee, apricots and pomegranates. 

The most of the inhabitants are Arabs, many of whom have 
no fixed habitations, but live in tents and wander over large 
areas of country in order to find pasturage for their flocks and 
herds, on which they depend for a livelihood. 

Euphrates y the principal river of Asiatic Turkey, rises near 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


hi 


Mount Ararat and flows into the Persian Gulf. The ruins of 
Babylon are on the Euphrates River. 

ilratlia is the most western of the great peninsulas that 
project southward from Asia. 

Mocha , a city in the southwestern part of Arabia, is noted 
for its export of coffee. What kind? 

Mecca , the sacred city of the Mohammedans, is situated in 
the western part of Arabia, at some distance from the coast. 
It is the birthplace of Mohammed, and all good Mohamme- 
dans pray with their faces Upwards Mecca. 

The Red Sea is connected with the Mediterranean by a 
canal through which large vessels can readily pass. 

V 

Syria borders on the east end of the Mediterranean Sea, 
and extends eastward to the basin of the Euphrates River. 
The southwestern part of it is Palestine, or the Holy Land. 
Most of the events recorded in the Bible happened in Pales- 
tine. It was here that Christ lived and taught the people. 

Jerusalem, the capital of Palestine, was at one time a very 
important city, but is of little importance at present. 

Bethlehe?n , the birthplace of Christ, is about six miles south 
of Jerusalem. 

The Dead Sea forms a part of. the eastern boundary of Pal- 
estine. It has no outlet, hence its waters are salt. 

The Lebanon aitd Anti- Lebanon Mountains are two paral- 
lel ranges in the northern part of Syria. They extend north 
and south, at a short distance from the Mediterranean. The 
Lebanon range is the western one. 

Damascus , the largest city of Asiatic Turkey, is situated on 
a beautiful plain, at the east base of the Anti-Lebanon Moun- 
tains. It is said to be the oldest city in existence. 

7 he Island of Cyprus is in the northeastern corner of the 
Mediterranean wSea. It is under the control of Great Britain. 

Asia Minor is a large peninsula at the western extremity 


112 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


of Asia. It projects westward. Do you know any others 
that extend west? Any north? Any south? Any east? 

Let the pupils name, in order, the bodies of water by which 
it is bordered; nearly all of them were noticed when Europe 
was studied. 

Smyrna , the principal city of Asia Minor, is situated on 
the western coast. It is a busy, enterprising city, and has an 
extensive commerce. 


CHAPTER XVIII. 


AFRICA, AUSTRALIA, AND THE ISLANDS OF THE PACIFIC. 

Africa; the second of the continents in size, but the least 
in importance, is situated southwest of Asia, to which it is con- 
nected by the Isthmus of Suez. 

It bears a marked resemblance to South America in form, 
both being triangular, wide at the north and narrowing to- 
wards the south. Its coastline is more regular even than that 
of South America, and contains few good harbors. 

The surface consists of a great plateau, which approaches 
close to the ocean on all sides, leaving but a narrow strip of 
lowland along the coast. The plateau is higher in the south 
than it is in the north, and is surrounded by mountain ranges, 
of which the Atlas Mountains, the Kong Mountains, and the 
Mountains of the Moon are the principal ones. The northern 
part of the plateau consists of the Sahara Desert, some parts 
of which are below the level of the sea. 

The principal rivers of Africa are the Nile, Niger, Congo, 
Orange, and Zambesi. Owing to the nature of the surface, 
these rivers are obstructed by falls and rapids, consequently, 
with the exception of the Nile, they are of little value to 
commerce. 

Africa lies almost entirely within the tropics, and is the 
hottest of the continents. The climate of the west coast is 
very unhealthy, and proves fatal to foreigners. 

Egypt , the most important country of Africa, is situated in 
the northeastern part of the continent. The habitable part 
of the country consists of the narrow valley of the Nile, and 
the lowland along the Mediterranean Sea; the rest of the 
country is a desert. 


(“ 3 ) 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


”4 

The principal crops are cotton, maize, durra, wheat, rice, 
sugar-cane, flax, hemp, melons, oranges and bananas. 

Egypt is nominally dependent on Turkey. 

Alexandria , the chief commercial city of Egypt, is situated 
on the Mediterranean Sea, near the western mouth of the Nile. 

Cairo , the capital of Egypt, is on the Nile River. The 
streets are narrow and crooked, and the upper stories of many 
of the houses project over the lower ones. 

The Soudan is a name given to a large region of desert 
country lying south of Egypt. Its capital is Khartoum, at the 
junction of the Blue with the White Nile. The Nile drains 
Lakes Albert and Victoria. 

The four countries which border on the Mediterranean Sea, 
west of Egypt, are sometimes called the Barbary States . 
They are 

Tripoli, , whose capital is the city of Tripoli; 

Tunis , capital, the city of Tunis; 

Algeria , capital, Algiers; and 

Morocco, whose capital is Fez. 

Cape Blanco is the most northern point of Africa. 

The country of Algeria belongs to France. 

Cape Verd is the most western point of Africa. 

The Gulf of Guinea is on the west coast of Africa. 

Cape Colony , the most important country of South Africa, 
belongs to Great Britain. Its capital is Cape Town. 

Cape Agulhas is the most southern point of Africa. 

The Island of Madagascar is east of Africa, in the Indian 
Ocean; it is separated from the continent by the Mozambique 
Channel. 

Cape Guardafui is the most eastern point of Africa. 

Australia; the smallest of the six continents, is situated 
south of Asia. It is about as large as the United States, ex- 
cluding Alaska. The entire continent belongs to Great 
Britain. 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


“5 


The coast line is very regular, there being no indentations 
of any note, except the Gulf of Carpenteria, in the north. 

The surface is a low plateau, which is generally lower in 
the interior than it is along the margins. 

The climate is warm but healthful. But little rain falls in 
the interior; hence, much of the continent is only fit for graz- 
ing, and some parts of it are entirely destitute of vegetation. 

The rivers are few and unimportant; and most of the lakes 
are salt, and so shallow that many of them dry up at times. 

The continent has rich deposits of gold, copper, tin and 
bituminous coal; and mining is one of the principal industries. 

The southeastern part of the continent is the part best fitted 
for agriculture. The chief crops are wheat, barley, oats, In- 
dian corn, arrowroot, potatoes, sugar-cane, tobacco and grapes. 
Gold mining, cattle raising and wool growing are among the 
principal occupations of the people. 

There are five colonies, of which Victoria is the most 
populous. Melbourne is the capital of Victoria, and the largest 
city in Australia. 

The colony of New South Wales is situated north of 
Victoria. It is the leading agricultural colony on the conti- 
nent 

Sydney, the capital of New South Wales, is the oldest city 
in Australia. 

Tasmania, a British colony, is situated south of Australia. 
The soil is fertile, but covered by such dense forests, that the 
labor of preparing it for agriculture is very great. 

Hobart Town is the capital. 

New Zealand, a British colony, is east of Australia. 
The colony consists of a chain of islands, only three of which 
are of much importance. The chief productions are wool, 
flax, and the ordinary cereals. 


1 16 


ELEMENTARY WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


Wellington is the capital. 

North of Australia is a large number of islands, most of 
which belong to Holland and Spain. Borneo and Celebes 
are occupied mainly by native States, of which little is known. 
Java and Sumatra are under the control of Holland. They 
are noted for the large quantity of coffee which they produce 
annually. 

Batavia, the capital of all the Dutch possessions in the 
East, is situated on the east end of the Island of Java. Its 
commerce is very extensive, the chief exports being coffee, 
sugar, tobacco, timber, gold dust, diamonds, camphor, bees’ 
wax, tortoise shell, and spices. 

Philippine Islands, next to Cuba, the most valuable 
possessions of Spain, are situated east of the southern part of 
Asia. They are noted chiefly for the spices and tropical fruits 
which they produce. 

Manila, on the Island of Luzon, is the capital, and most 
populous city of the Philippines. 

Sandwich Islands, a group of islands in the North 
Pacific Ocean, constitute the Kingdom of Hawaii. 

The principal productions are sugar, wheat, cotton, tobacco, 
arrowroot and sweet potatoes. 

The largest active volcano in the world is situated on one 
of the Sandwich Islands. 

Honolulu is the capital and principal city. 


CHAPTER I. 


DANISH AMERICA, BRITISH AMERICA, AND THE BASIN 

OF THE ST. LAWRENCE. 

In the elementary work we learned that North America 
comprised the countries of Danish America, British America, 
the United States, Mexico, Central America, and the West 
Indies. 

We will begin at the northeast corner of the continent with 
Danish America which consists of Greenland and Iceland; 
both cold and inhospitable, and only a few of the hard- 
iest grains and vegetables can be cultivated. The people 
are largely dependent on fishing for a livelihood. 

Iceland is noted for its volcanoes and geysers. Its capital, 
is Reikiavik. 

The southern point of Greenland is Cape Farewell, in 
about latitude 6o° N. The northern part of the island has 
never been explored on account of the vast fields of ice and 
snow. Smith’s Sound, west of Greenland, is the favorite 
route of Arctic explorers in their efforts to reach the north pole. 
It was on the west side of this Sound that the “Greely party” 
was found and rescued in 1884. Greenland has a number of 
European settlements, but they are all feeble. 

North of the mainland of British America we find a large 
number of islands winch, by reason of their Arctic climate, are 
not of enough importance to entitle them to much attention. 
They may be of importance at some future time, if so, then 
will be the time to study them. 

(117) 


Ii8 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


The Mackenzie River flows into the Arctic Ocean near the 
northwest corner of British America. Ascending the river, 
we notice Great Bear Lake sending in its waters from the 
east 

Peace River comes in from the west, having forced its way 
through the Rocky Mts. 

Great Slave Lake , of which the Mackenzie is the outlet, 
appears next. 

Slave River flows from the south into the Great Slave 
Lake. 

Athabasca Lake is the source of the Slave River 

Athabasca River , the headwaters of the Mackenzie, rises 
in Mt. Brown, and flows northeast into Lake Athabasca. 

Have the position of Mt. Brown firmly fixed, as it is one of 
the “landmarks” in the geography of North America. Sketch 
the Mackenzie and its branches. 

Melville Peninsula is at the entrance into Hudson Bay. 

Hudson Bay is crossed at its widest part by parallel 6o° 
N. 

Nelson River , the outlet of Winnipeg Lake, is deep and 
wide, but has so many rapids as to be scarcely fit for naviga- 
tion. 

Lake Winnipeg , an important lake, is situated mostly in 
the Province of Manitoba. 

Red River of the North flows into Lake Winnepeg from 
the south. The basin of the Red River is the great wheat 
region of Manitoba. 

Winnipeg , the capital of Manitoba, is situated near the 
mouth of the Red River. 

Saskatchewan River rises near Mt. Brown; flows through 
the Northwest Territory into Lake Winnipeg. 

James Bay , the southern arm of Hudson Bay. Nearly all of 
the rivers that empty into James Bay rise in the Height of 
Land. 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


1 19 

Hudson Strait. 

Labrador , a cold, dreary peninsula of British America, is 
inhabited only by Indians and missionaries. Notice that par- 
allel 60 0 N. passes through the northern part of Labrador. 

Strait of Belle Isle is the narrow channel separating the 
island of Newfoundland from Labrador. 

Trinity Bay , a large bay in the southeastern part of New- 
foundland. 

Hea 7 'fs Content , a city on Trinity Bay, is the western ter- 
minus of several Atlantic cables. 

St. John's, the capital of Newfoundland. 

Cafe Race. Cafe Ray . 

Grandbanks , southeast of Newfoundland, and famous for 
their cod fisheries. 

Gulf of St. Lawrence. 

St. Lazvreuce River , one of the greatest rivers of North 
America. 

Orleans Isla?id. Montmorency River flows into the St. 
Lawrence opposite Orleans Island. The river is noted for its 
beautiful falls. 

Quebec, the most strongly fortified city in America, and the 
capital of the Province of Quebec, is situated on the St. Law- 
rence at the mouth of the St. Charles River. The fortifica- 
tions are on the Pleights of Abraham. 

Point I^evi is across the St Lawrence from Quebec. 

Lake St. Peter is an expansion of the St. Lawrence River. 

Sorel River drains Lake Champlain. 

Lake C ham f lain is a long, narrow body of water between 
Vermont and New York. 

Winooski River flows into Lake Champlain. 

Montfelier, the capital of Vermont, is on the Winooski. 

Burlington, the largest city of Vermont, is situated on Lake 
Champlain, near the mouth of the Winooski River. 

Rutland, noted for its marble quarries, is on a tributary of 
Lake Champlain. 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


170 


Lake George , a beautiful lake of New York, discharges its 
waters into Lake Champlain. This lake has become a favorite 
summer resort. 

Tico?ideroga , at the mouth of the outlet of Lake George, is re- 
nowned for Old Fort Ticonderoga in its vicinity. 

Montreal , the largest city of British America, is situated on 
the island of Montreal in the St. Lawrence River. 

Ottawa River separates the Provinces of Quebec and On- 
tario. 

Ottawa is the capital of the Dominion of Canada. 

The Thousand Isles are situated in the St. Lawrence, near 
Lake Ontario. They are a fashionable summer resort. 

Kingston , on the north side of Lake Ontario, is connected 
with Ottawa by the Rideau Canal. 

Have the pupils sketch the St. Lawrence from Lake Ontario 
to its mouth; also Lakes Champlain and George. 

Toronto , capital of the Province of Ontario, is engaged in 
the manufacture of railway cars, carriages, leather, and soap. 
It has several rolling-mills, breweries, and pork packing estab- 
lishments. It is also noted for its university and normal 
school. 

Niagara, River , the outlet of Lake Erie, is noted for its 
wonderful falls. The Falls of Niagara are 165 feet high, and 
are divided by Goat Island. 

Welland Canal , a ship canal, connects Lakes Ontario and 
Erie. It is on the British side of the river. 

Lake Erie . Detroit River flows out of L. St. Clair into 
Lake Erie. 

Detroit , the largest city of Michigan, has a large lake com- 
merce, and is the center of an important railroad system. Con- 
tinuing northward we find: 

St. Clair Lake . St. Clair River. 

Lake Huron. Georgian Bay. 

Collingwood. Great AIa?iitoulin Island. 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


121 


St. Mary's River , the outlet of Lake Superior. In it are 
the Falls of St. Mary. A ship canal leads around the falls, 
on the American side. 

Lake Superior is the largest body of fresh water on the 
the globe. Its northern point is about in the latitude of Paris. 

St. Louis River , flows into Lake Superior at its west end. 
This river is generally regarded by geographers as the head- 
waters of the St. Lawrence River. 

We will now continue our journey southward, we find: 

Duluth , a city of Minnesota, at the west end of Lake Su- 
perior; it is the eastern terminus of the Northern Pacific Rail- 
road. 

Marquette has rich iron mines. The famous copper re- 
gions lie between Marquette and the Apostle Islands. 

St. Mary's River. 

Mackinaw Strait connects Lakes Huron and Michigan. In 
it is the island of Mackinaw, which is rapidly becoming a fa- 
vorite summer resort. 

Lake Michigan is the only one of the Great Lakes which 
is entirely in the United States 

Green Bay , an arm of Lake Michigan. 

Green Bay City , at the head of Green Bay. 

Box River , the outlet of Lake Winnebago, flows into 
Green Bay. 

Lake Winnebago is an expansion of the Fox River. 

Oshkosh , an important city of Wisconsin, is situated on 
the west shore of Lake Winnebago. It is the great center 
of the Wisconsin lumber trade, and the seat of one of the 
State Normal Schools. 

Milwaukee , the largest city of Wisconsin, is situated on the 
west shore of Lake Michigan, at the mouth of the Milwaukee 
River. The river has been made navigable to the heart of 
the city. The commerce of Milwaukee is great, wheat and 
flour being the chief items. The manufactures are very val- 


122 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


uable; the principal products are lager-beer, pig-iron, iron- 
castings, machinery, agricultural implements, steam-boilers, 
car wheels, tobacco, cigars, etc., etc. Owing to the cream 
color of the brick of which the most of the buildings are 
made, the city is often spoken of as the “Cream City of the 
Lakes.” The Germans constitute at least one-half the popu- 
lation. 

Rcicuie , a rapidly growing commercial and manufacturing 
town of Wisconsin. 

Waukeegan , a city in the northeastern part of Illinois on 
Lake Michigan. 

Chicago , the largest city of Illinois, and the fourth in the 
Union in size, is situated in the northeastern part of the State, 
on Lake Michigan. It is divided by the Chicago River into 
the North, South, and West Divisions. 

The river and its branches have been deepened sufficiently 
to float the largest class of lake vessels, and now afford-, the 
city a water frontage of forty miles, besides the outer harbor 
on the lake front. They are spanned by thirty -six bridges 
and have two tunnels under them. These bridges are “swing 
bridges” or “draw bridges.” The Rush Street bridge is pro- 
bably the largest draw bridge in the world. It will accomo- 
date four teams abreast, and is swung by steam power, and 
lighted by electricity. Connected with the South Branch is 
the Illinois aijd Michigan Canal which extends to the Illinois 
River at La Salle. This canal carries off much of the sew- 
erage of Chicago, to the great annoyance of the towns 
through which it passes. 

The city is supplied with good, pure water from Lake 
Michigan by means of tunnels which extend two miles out 
under the lake. 

The public Parks of Chicago are eleven in number, and are 
situated in the outskirts of the city. They are to be connected 
by a system of Boulevards, fashioned after the famous Boule- 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


133 


vards of Paris. The South Park in the South Side, and Lin- 
coln Park on the North Side are the principal ones. 

Chicago is the second commercial city of the Union. It is 
claimed that the entries of all kinds of water crafts at this port 
exceed in nwnber those of Boston, New York, Philadelphia 
and New Orleans combined. More important lines of railroads 
center here than in any other city on the continent. 

It is the third greatest manufacturing center of the United 
States. It has 3519 manufactories, which give employment to 
79,414 persons. “Seven establishments employ over 1000 per- 
sons each, and three establishments over 4000 persons each.” 

Chicago is the greatest grain market in the world. It is 
also the most important market for live-stock and lumber in 
the United States; and it packs the most pork of any city in 
the world. 

In October, 1871, Chicago was the scene of one of the great- 
est fires of modern times. The business portion of the South 
Division, and nearly all of the North Division were destroyed. 
The total area burned over, including streets, was nearly 31^ 
square miles. The number of buildings destroyed was 17,450; 
persons rendered homeless, 98,500; persons killed, about 200; 
loss of property, $190,000,000. The business of the city was 
interrupted but a short time, however. Population in 1880, 

5 ° 3 > i 8 5 - 

Have your pupils imagine what a large city is. What makes 
some places grow so large? Will your town ever be a large 
city? Why? Why is Chicago larger than Milwaukee? Mil- 
waukee larger than Detroit? etc. 

W e now go eastward : 

South Bend is a very prosperous city of Indiana, on the St. 
Joseph River. 

Grand Rapids , one of the flourishing cities of Michigan, is 
on the Grand River, at the head of steamboat navigation. The 
sawing and planing of lumber, manufacturing of furniture and 


124 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY 


wooden ware of all sorts, farm implements, and flour are among 
the leading industries. 

Lansing, the capital of Michigan, is situated on the Grand 
River. 

Straits of Mackinaw . 

Lake Huron . Saginaw Bay , an arm of Lake Huron. 

Tfsilanti , the seat of the Michigan State Normal School, is 
situated on the Huron River. 

An?i Arbor is the seat of the Michigan State University. 
The university is the leading school west of the Alleghany 
Mountains, and one of the best in the United States. 

The State of Michigan is cut into two parts by the Strait of 
Mackinaw. The southern peninsula resembles a mitten with 
the opening towards Indiana. 

The northern peninsula has rich mines of copper and iron; 
the southern peninsula has timber enough to furnish charcoal 
for the reduction of those ores. 

South of parallel 44 0 , agriculture is the principal occupation 
of the people, while north of 44 0 , lumbering and mining are 
the leading employments. The pine forests of Michigan are 
very valuable. 

The western part of Michigan, south of the Grand River, is 
becoming noted for the cultivation of the peach. 

Toledo , one of the chief ports of Ohio, is situated on the 
Maumee River, eight miles from Lake Erie. The largest ves- 
sels on the lake can readily ascend to the city. It is the cen- 
ter of an important railroad system, which adds materially to 
its commerce; it is also an important manufacturing city, and 
has the largest wagon-works in America. 

Fort Wayne, a railroad town, is at the head of the Maumee 
River. 

Sandusky is situated on Lake Erie, at the mouth of the 
Sandusky River. 

Cleveland, the second city in size and importance in Ohio, is 
on Lake Erie at the mouth of the Cuyahoga River, which 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


125 


forms its harbor. The trade of the city, both by lakes and 
railroads, is great. Its most important manufactures are of 
iron and coal-oil. It is second only to Pittsburg in the refin- 
ing of petroleum. The tomb of President Garfield is at 
Cleveland. 

Erie , the principal lake city of Pennsylvania, is in the 
northwestern part of the State, on Lake Erie. 

Chautauqua, a lake in the southwestern part of New York. 
It has become a summer resort on account of its great beauty, 
and the religious and literary “Assemblies” held upon its 
banks. Its waters find their way to the Alleghany River, 
and eventually to the Gulf of Mexico. 

Buffalo , the third city in size in the State of New York, is 
situated at the east end of Lake Erie, and at the head of Ni- 
agara River. It is the western terminus of the Erie Cat.al, 
and the eastern terminus of lake navigation. It handles the 
most grain of any city in the world, most of which it transfers 
from the lake vessels to the canal boats by means of its im- 
mense grain elevators. Tell your pupils what a grain elevator 
is, that thousands of men are employed taking grain from the 
land carriers or railroads to the water carriers or boats. You 
can make this subject not only interesting but very profitable. 

Rochester , a city of New York, at the Falls of the Genesee 
River, is noted for its flouring mills, manufacturing of boots 
and shoes, and for its nurseries. 

Oswego , the largest city of New York on Lake Ontario, is 
an important commercial city. 

Syracuse is specially noted for the manufacture of salt. 
How and from what is salt manufactured? 

Cayuga , one of several beaultiful lakes in the interior of 
New York. 

Ithaca , at the south end of Lake Cayuga, is the seat of Cor- 
nell Uuniversity. 

We are ready to descend the St. Lawrence River, and 
as the places connected with it have already been studied, no 


126 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


time need be given them now. Before passing to the Gulf of 
St. Lawrence, however, the lakes and their connecting links, 
as well as their tributaries, should be sketched, and the towns 
located. The pupils should he able to name rapidly, and in 
order, the States that are wholly or partially in the basin of 
the St. Lawrence. They should be required to name in order 
the bodies of water through which a vessel passes in going 
from Duluth to Buffalo; from Marquette to Cleveland; from 
Chicago to Montreal. Unless they can by this time see the 
basin of the St. Lawrence, with its lakes and tributaries, cities 
and harbors, spread out before them, the work has not been 
well done. 

We now are on the Atlantic coast and find: 

Prince Edward Island, one of the British Provinces; it is 
situated in the southern pa**t of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 
Agriculture and fishing occupy the time of the people. 

Cape Breton Island is north of Nova Scotia, and belongs 
to that Province. 

Nova Scotia , “New Scotland,” is the southeastern Province 
of British America. Agriculture, mining and fishing are the 
leading occupations of the people. 

Halifax is the capital and principal port of Nova Scotia. 
Its harbor is the principal outlet of British America during the 
winter months, when the St. Lawrence is ice-bound. 

Cape Sable . 

Bay of Bundy , an arm of the Atlantic Ocean, is noted for 
its high tides. 

New Brunswick is a Province of British America, adjoin- 
ing the State of Maine. It is extensively engaged in lumber- 
ing and ship building. Its fisheries are also valuable. 

Fredericton, the capital of New Brunswick, is situated in the 
southwestern part of the Province on the St. John’s River. 

The northern and central parts of British America are val- 
uable only for their furs, as the climate is too cold for agricul- 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


127 


ture to be profitable. In a few of the southern provinces ag- 
riculture may be carried on advantageously and in the others 
somewhat so. The fisheries of British America are very val- 
uable, and form one of its principal sources of wealth. 

The Provinces, with their capitals, are as follows: 

Newfoundland, St. John; Nova Scotia, Halifax; Prince 
Edward Island, Charlottetown; New Brunswick, Frederic- 
ton; Quebec, Quebec; Ontario, Toronto; Manitoba, Winni- 
peg; British Columbia, Victoria. 

The Territories are: 

Labrador, Northeast Territory, Northern Territory, North- 
west Territory. 

District of Kewaydin. 

Each Province has its own Legislature, which makes its 
laws, and a Deputy-Governor, who executes them. In fact, 
each Province may be said to have entire self-government. 
All of the Provinces, except Newfoundland, have united in a 
general government, styled the Dominion of Canada. Ottawa 
is the capital of the Dominion. Here the Parliament meets, 
and the Governor- General has his residence. The Governor- 
General is appointed by England. 



CHAPTER II. 


THE NEW ENGLAND STATES. 

The St. Croix River rises in Grand Lake and flows - south 
between Maine and New Brunswick, into the Passamaquoddy 
Bay. 

Mt . Desert , an island on the coast of Maine, is a favorite 
summer resort. 

Penobscot Bay , an arm of the Atlantic. 

Penobscot , a river of Maine, rises amon^ the Green Moun* 
tains, near the frontier of Canada. It flows at first in an east- 
erly direction, passing through Chesuncook Lake, and then 
southward to Penobscot Bay. 

Bangor , the center of the lumber trade of Maine, is situated 
on the right bank of the Penobscot River. It is the head of 
navigation, and has a very extensive commerce. 

Mt. Katahdin , the highest land in Maine, is east of Ches- 
uncook Lake. Its heigth is 5,385 feet. 

Rockland , noted for its lime and stone quarries, is situated 
on the west side of Penobscot Bay. 

Kennebec , one of the chief rivers of Maine, rises in Moose- 
head Lake. 

Bath , noted for its ship-building, is situated on the right 
bank of the Kenebec, twelve miles from the Ocean. “In the 
business of shipping, Bath is surpassed by no city in the United 
States.” 

The Androscoggin River drains Lake Umbagog, and flows 
into the Kennebec five miles above Bath. 

Brunswick is the seat of Bowdoin College. 

Lewiston , the third city of Maine in population, is situated 
on the left bank of the Androscoggin. The river here falls 

(las'* 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


129 


about sixty feet, and affords an abundant water-power, which 
is utilized in manufacturing various kinds of goods, chiefly 
cotton and woolen. About 40,000,000 yards of cotton and 
woolen goods are manufactured here annually. 

Augusta , the capital of Maine, is situated on the west bank 
of the Kennebec. 

Portland , the most populous city of Maine, and its chief 
seaport, is situated on Casco Bay. The city has a very latge 
commerce, both by the ocean and the many railroads which 
connect it with various important points in the interior. 

Biddeford is situated on the right bank of the Saco River. 
Its prosperity is due mainly to trade, and the manufacture of 
cotton and woolen goods. 

Maine is the largest of the New England States and the one 
best suited for farming. The ordinary grains, fruits, and veg- 
etables are cultivated in the southern part of the State, while 
the northern part contains magnificent forests of pine, which 
furnish employment to a large number of persons. 

The water-power of the State is very valuable, and is util- 
ized in manufacturing cotton and woolen goods, lumber, and 
various other articles. 

Portsmouth , the only seaport of New Hampshire, is situated 
on the right bank of the Piscataqua River, about three miles 
from the ocean. The city has an extensive commerce. The 
United States navy yard is at Kittery, on an island near the 
east side of the river. 

The Piscataqua River is an estuary which partly separates 
New Hampshire from Maine. It receives several small rivers, 
the principal one of which is Salmon Falls River, on the boun- 
dary. 

Merrimac River flows south into Massachusetts, and then 

northeast to the Atlantic. It is said to turn the most spindles 
of any river in the world. 

Lawrence , noted for its many large cotton mills, is situated 
on both banks of the Merrimac River. 


130 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


Lowell , the chief cotton-manufacturing city of the United 
States, is situated on the Merrimac, at the mouth of the Con- 
cord River. Lowell has also manufactures of machinery, 
boilers, paper, chemicals, edge-tools, elastic goods, files, screws, 
bolts, patent medicines, carriages, hydraulic presses, and ma- 
chinists’ tools. 

Concord , the scene of the first battle of the American Rev- 
olution, is situated on the Concord River. 

Lexington , situated a few miles southeast of Concord, is 
also of historical importance. 

Aashua , an important manufacturing city of New Hamp- 
shire, is on the right bank of the Merrimac River, at the 
mouth of Nashua River. 

Manchester , the most populous city of New Hampshire, is 
on the left bank of the Merrimac. “The river, which here 
falls 54 feet, affords great hydraulic power, which is em- 
ployed in extensive manufactures of cotton and woolen goods.” 
The city has also manufactures of steam-engines, locomotives 
linen goods, hosiery, paper, etc. 

Co 7 icord , the capital of New Hampshire, has abundant 
water-power, and is extensively engaged in the manufacture 
of cotton goods, woolen goods, carriages, machinery, etc. 

Lake Winnc'pesaukee , “the smile of the Great Spirit,” is a 
beautiful sheet of water, and is visited by many tourists every 
summer. 

Mt. Washington , one of the White Mountains, and “the 
crown of New England,” is the highest land east of the Missis- 
sippi, with the exception of Black Dome, in North Carolina. 
It is ascended by thousands of tourists annually. The ascent 
may be made on horseback, or by railroad. 

“To accompany an aeronaut, to look out upon the surround- 
ing world, has been the desire of many, though enjoyed by 
few. Here the ‘iron horse,’ guided by the hand of genius, 
climbs triumphantly to the dizzy height of 6,285 feet, more 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


131 

than a mile in the air, where the c storm-king’ riding on the 
wings of the whirlwind, has hitherto reigned supreme; and 
yet all this is done in absolute safety, and with as much ease 
as the same distance could be accomplished over any road in 
the country. 

“The ascent should be made the subject of some preparation. 
To attempt it improperly clothed would risk the pleasure of 
the excursion. You may not meet a snow storm, or find icicles 
hanging from the roof in the morning; but you are liable to 
any month in the year. 

“The views while ascending and descending are supremely 
grand. To stand upon the summit of Mount Washington is 
the one desire of every visitor to the mountain region. Here 
from the highest point on the Atlantic Slope, he can look down 
upon this vast panorama of hills and valleys, cities and plains, 
dotted with a thousand silvery lakes blended into one harmon- 
ious whole. Without putting foot upon the ground he is lifted 
step by step up this rugged steep, to the very doors of the 
hotel, which, bound with chains to the barren cliff, has been 
built and furnished to receive him.”* 

Sketch the Merrimac River. 

Newbury port is on the right bank of the Merrimac, three 
miles from the Ocean. It has extensive manufactures of cot- 
ton goods, machinery, and boots and shoes. “In the vicinity 
are deposits rich in silver, with lead and gold.” 

Cape Ann is on the east coast of Massachusetts. 

Salem , on the coast, fourteen miles northeast of Boston, is 
an important manufacturing town. 

Lynn , noted for the Manufacture of ladies’ shoes, is on the 
coast, ten miles northeast of Boston. 

Boston, \ the capital of Massachusetts and the most populous 
city of New England, is situated on the western extremity of 
Massachusetts Bay. The city embraces Boston proper, East 


♦“Popular Resorts, and How to Reach Them.” +See sketch next page. 


132 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 



1. Boston Bay. 

2. Boston. 

3. Boston Common. 

4. Back Bay Lands. 

5. South Boston. 

6. East Boston. 

7. Charles River. 

8. Brookline. 

9. Roxbury. 


10. Brighton. 

11. Cambridge. 

12. Cambridgeport. 

13. East Cambridge. 

14. Charlestown. 

15. Bunker Hill Monu- 

ment. 

16. Mystic River. 

17. Chelsea. 


\ 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


*33 


Boston, South Boston, Roxbury, Dorchester, Charlestown, 
Brighton, and West Roxbury. The harbor is excellent, and 
the wharves, warehouses, and other shipping facilities are not 
surpassed. Steamers ply hence to Europe, and to the princi- 
pal ports of the United States and Canada. The importation 
and refining of sugars is a valuable industry. “Pearl street is 
the largest boot and shoe market in the world.” 

Among the objects of interest to visitors, are Fanueil Hall, 
Boston Common, Bunker Hill Monument, and Harvard Uni- 
versity, located at Cambridge. 

Plymouth , the oldest town in Massachusetts, is of historical 
importance. 

Cape Cod Bay . Cape Cod is a term usually applied to a 
long, narrow, sandy peninsula between Cape Cod Bay and the 
Atlantic. 

Nantucket Island and Martha? s Vineyard are important 
islands off the southeast coast of Massachusetts. 

Elizabeth Isles are west of Martha’s Vineyard. 

Buzzard' s Bay, an arm of the Atlantic Ocean. 

New Bedford , noted for the fitting out of whaling-vessels, 
is situated on Buzzard’s Bay. 

Narragansett Bay extends into the State of Rhode Island. 

Newport, a fashionable watering place and one of the capitals 
* of Rhode Island, is situated on the west shore of the island of 
Rhode Island. The city has considerable commerce. 

Fall River, an important manufacturing city of Southern 
Massachusetts, is situated on the east bank of the Taunton 
River, at its entrance into Mount Hope Bay. “Its prosperity 
is mainly derived from manufactures of cotton, nails, machin- 
ery, and other products; it being specially noted for its manu- 
factories of cotton, of which there are 40 mills, with 1,284,700 
spindles.” The city has an important commerce. 

Providence, one of the capitals (Why has Rhode Island two 
capitals? Does the legislature meet in both of them?) of Rhode 


134 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


Island and its chief city, is situated at the head of navigation on 
Providence River. It is the second city of New England in 
population, wealth and importance. It is one of the great 
manufacturing centers of the country. The Gorham Com- 
pany’s manufactory of solid silverware, the leading silver 
manufactory of the world, is located here. The works of the 
Providence Tool Company cover over five acres of ground, 
and give employment to 1500 workmen. The other leading 
manufactures are stoves, steam-engines, locomotives, jewelry, 
cotton and woolen goods. “Providence is the headquarters of 
60 woolen and 100 cotton manufactories.” Brown University 
is located here. 

Worcester , an important manufacturing city of Massachu- 
setts, is situated on Blackstone River, near the center 
of the State. The city has important manufactures of a 
very great variety of articles, such as farm-implements, boots 
and shoes, woolens, cottons, all kinds of machinery. The 
wire mills are the most extensive in the world. 

Sketch the coast of Massachusetts, and the State of Rhode 
Island. 

New London is in southeastern Connecticut, on the Thames 
River. The citizens are largely interested in fisheries and the 
coast-trade. The manufactures of the city are of considerable 
importance. 

Norwich is situated at the head of navigation, on the Thames 
River. 

Long Island Sound separates Long Island from Connecti- 
cut. 

Hartford , the capital of Connecticut, is situated on the right 
bank of the Connecticut River, fifty miles from Long Island 
Sound. This city has a large capital employed in the insu- 
rance business, and is the headquarters of a large number of 

both fire and life-insurance companies. Hartford has exten- 
sive manufactures of fire-arms, steam-engines, boilers, sewing- 
machines, hardware, silver-plated ware, carriages, etc., etc. 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


135 


Springfield , a flourishing city of Massachusetts, is on the left 
bank of the Connecticut River. It is a very important manu- 
facturing center. The United States Armory, situated here, 
is the most extensive in the Union. 

Holyoke , has valuable manufactures of cotton goods and 
paper. 

Mt . Tom is on the west bank and Mt. Holyoke on the east 
bank of the Connecticut. Mounts Tom and Holyoke are not 
noted for their altitude, but for the beautiful view of the Con- 
necticut valley that may be had from their summits. 

Amherst , near the Connecticut River, is the seat of Am- 
herst College. 

Keene , a beautiful city of southwestern New Hampshise, is 
situated on the Ashuelot River. 

Hanover is the seat of Dartmouth College. 

St. Johnsbury , noted for the manufacture of Fairbank’s 
scales and balances, is situated in northeastern Vermont. 

The Connecticut River rises in the northeastern corner of 
New Hampshire, 1,600 feet above the level of the sea, and 
flows southward to Long Island Sound. It is about 450 miles 
long, and in Connecticut has a. width varying from 500 to 
1000 feet. 

Sketch New Hampshire. 

New Haven , the most populous city of Connecticut, has 
about 800 manufacturing establishments, and is an important 
commercial center. It is the seat of Yale College. 

Meriden is situated about midway between New Haven 
and Hartford. It has extensive manufactures of britannia- 
ware, silver-plated ware, and tin-ware. 

The Housatonic River flows into Long Island Sound, a 
short distance west of New Haven. 

Waterbury , a manufacturing city, is situated on a tributary 
of the Housatonic River. It has several rolling-mills, button- 
factories, and manufactories of clocks and silver plated ware. 


advanced work in GEOGRAPHY. 


*36 


It is stated that three-fifths of all the brass manufactured in the 
United States is made here. 

Bridgeport, an important commercial center of Southwest- 
ern Connecticut, is on a small inlet of Long Island Sound. 

Hoosac Mountains , an extension of the Green Mountains, 
are situated in the western part of Massachusetts. Hoosac 

a 

tunnel, five miles long, passes through these mountains, in the 
northwestern part of the State. 

The Green Mountains enter Vermont from the north in 
two ranges which unite near the the center of the State, and 
pass into Massachusetts. Mt. Mansfield, the highest land in 
the State, is in the western ridge. 

Review what was learned about Vermont in connection 
with the basin of the St. Lawrence, and sketch the State. 

Sketch Connecticut and Rhode Island. Sketch New Eng 
land as a whole. Use the ehalk freely. 

Call attention to the rough surface of New England, its un- 
fitness for profitable farming, except in a few favored locali- 
ties, and its manufacturing advantages. Let the pupils show 
how these advantages have been used, by naming the chief 
manufacturing centers, with the principal articles made in 
each. 

Make a scheme or brace for the New England States. It 
is a good plan to do this when reviewing any section or chap- 


ter 



CHAPTER III. 


THE BASINS OF THE HUDSON AND DELAWARE RIVERS. 

New York and vicinity .* New York city, the largest city 
of the New World, is situated at the mouth of the Hudson 
River on New York Bay, in latitude 40^ 0 N. and longitude 
74 0 W. It occupies all of Manhattan Island and a portion of 
the mainland on the north. The extreme length of the city 
is sixteen miles, and its greatest width from the Hudson to the 
Bronx River four and a half miles. Randall’s, Ward’s and 
Blackwell’s Islands in the East River belong to the city, and 
are occupied by asylums and reformatories. Bedloe’s and 
Governor’s Islands in New York harbor belong to the United 
States. A garrison is stationed on Governor’s Island, and 
Bartholdi’s statue oflibertyj* is to be placed on Bedloe’s Island. 

The harbor of New York is one of the finest in the world. 
It is entered from the Atlantic by the Narrows, a strait a mile 
wide, which separates Long Island from Staten Island, and 
on the northeast the harbor is connected with Long Island 
Sound by the East River, a navigable channel. 

*See sketoh next page. 


+The statue is a present from the people of France to the United States. 
“The pedestal will be of stone, rising in a massive square eighty-two feet above 
the ground. The solid block of concrete wiil be hidden under the grass, 
securely holding up the pedestal and the statue above. There will be stair- 
ways within the pedestal and balconies near the top commanding a line view 
of the beautiful bay and the three cities. The figure itself, from the top of the 
head to the foot, on which it stands posed as if to step forward, is one hundred 
and ten feet and a half high; the forefinger is eight feet in circumference at 
the second joint; the head is fourteen feet high, and forty persons can stand 
within it. There will be a stairway within the statue, leading to the head, and 
another in the extended arm, by which ascent may be made into the torch^ 
which will hold fifteen persons. A great light will be placed in the torch, and 
the pointed diadem, encircling the head, will be studded with electric lights.” 

0 37 ) 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 




1. Manhattan 

Island. 

2. Hudson Riv’r 

3. SpuytenDuy- 

vel Creek. 
Harlem Riv’r 

5. East River. 

6. Bronx River. 
Long- Island 

Sound. 

8. Long Island. 


Brooklyn. 19. 

Ward’s Island. 20. 

Blackwell’s Island. 21. 

Central Park. 22. 

New York Bay. 23. 

Governor’s Island. 24. 

Bedloe’s Island. 25. 

The Narrows. 26. 

Coney Island. 27. 

Sandy Hook. 28. 


Staten Island. 
Amboy. 
Elizabeth. 
Newark Bay. 
Jersey City. 
Newark. 
Passaic River. 
Paterson. 

Th e Lower Bay 
Atlantic Ocean. 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


i39 


Manhattan Island is thirteen and a half miles long, and 
varies in width from a few rods to two and a quarter miles. 
It is bounded on the north by Spuyten Duyvel Creek and 
Harlem River, on the east by the East River, which separates 
it from Long Island, on the south by the bay, on the west by 
the Hudson River, which separates it from New Jersey. 

Central Park, situated on Manhattan Island, is two and a 
half miles long and half a mile wide, and contains 843 acres. 
No city can boast of a more beautiful park. 

New York is supplied with water by an aqueduct from 
Croton River, a small tributary of the Hudson, fortv miles 
north of the city. 

The streets have been found insufficient to accommodate 
the business of the city, and recourse has been had to elevated 
railroads, of which there are several lines traversing the city 
from north to south. Broadway is the principal street; it 
will compare favorably with the best streets of Paris. Wall 
street is the financial heart of the country. 

About 60 percent. of the foreign commerce of the United 
States is carried on through the port of New York, the arri- 
vals and departure of vessels being about 23,000 annually. 

New York is probably the greatest manufacturing center in 
the world. Population, 1 , 500 , 000 . 

Brooklyn , the third city of the United States in population, 
is situated on the west end of Long Island, and separated from 
New York by the East River, which is crossed by the most 
magnificent bridge in the world. This bridge is the longest 
suspension bridge in the world, being 3,475 feet, or, including 
the approaches, 5,989 feet. Cost about $15,500,000. Took 
thirteen years to build it. It has tracks for street cars, 
and for foot passengers, with a promenade above. The city 
is extensively engaged in both commerce and manufactur- 
ing. Pop. 600,000. 

Jersey City , the most populous city of New Jersey, is 
separated from New York by the Hudson River, which is 


140 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


here about a mile wide. The two cities are to be connected 
by a railroad tunnel, which is now in course of construction. 
p op. 130,000. 

If we regard these three cities, with their numerous suburbs, 
as one, which they are in reality, we shall have a city on New 
York Bay, next in population to London. 

Sketch New York and vicinity. 

In ascending the Hudson R. from New York city, we shall 
have the pleasure of seeing some of the most beautiful scenery 
on the continent. About fifty miles up the river we come to 
“ the H ighlands,” at the entrance to which is 

West Point , the seat of the United States Military Academy. 

Poughkeepsie , on the east bank of the Hudson, is noted for 
the number of its educational institutions, of which Vassal* 
College, for ladies only, is the principal one. 

Albany , the capital of New York, is the eastern terminus of 
the Erie Canal, and is at the junction of several leading rail- 
roads, hence it has an extensive trade. It is also an important 
manufacturing center. 

Troy , at the head of steamboat navigation on the Hudson, 
is actively engaged in manufacturing iron and iron ware of all 
sorts. It is noted, also, for the manufacture of shirts and collars. 

Alohawk 7 ?., the principal tributary of the Hudson. 

Rome is situated on the Mohawk R. and Erie Canal; it is 
also near the head waters of the Oswego R. 

Saratoga Springs , u the Queen of American Watering- 
places/’ is situated north of the Mohawk, and twelve miles 
west of the Hudson. Its hotels, which are capable of ac- 
commodating 20,000 guests, are taxed to their utmost capacity 
in the month of August. 

Fort Edward is near the great bend of the Hudson. 

Sketch the Hudson. 

From New York Harbor we pass westward into Newark 
Pay , a long, narrow body of water into which flow the 
Hackensack and Passaic Rivers. 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


I 4 I 

Newark , a prosperous city of New Jersey, is situated on the 
Passaic River, about four miles from its mouth. It is noted 
for the manufacturing of carriages, castings, machinery, jew- 
elry, leather, etc. 

Pater son, on the Passaic, is noted for the number and 
variety of its manufacturing establishments. It has nearly 
forty silk factories, several iron foundries and machine shops, a 
number of establishments for the manufacturing of locomo- 
tives, cotton goods, woolens, velvets and carpets. 

Elizabeth, the first settlement in New Jersey, is on the 
mainland, opposite the northwest corner of Staten Island. 

Long Branch , a fashionable watering place, is on the east 
coast of New Jersey. 

On account of its excellent beach, and its proximity to the 
two great cities of New York and Philadelphia, the eastern 
coast of New Jersey is becoming dotted with watering-places. 
The principal ones after Long Branch, are Ocean Grove, 
Atlantic City and Cape May City. 

Cafe May and Cape Henlopen are at the entrance to Del- 
aware Bay. 

Delaware is next to the smallest State in the Union. Its 
peach orchards are famous for their size and the excellence of 
their fruit. The common grains and fruits are profitably cul- 
tivated. 

Dover , the- capital of Delaware, is situated on Jones Creek. 
Population, 2,000. 

Wilmington , the largest city of Delaware, is an important 
manufacturing center, and is especially noted for the manufac- 
turing of iron steamboats, railroad cars, steam engines, 
machinery, powder, etc. 

Philadelphia , “ brotherly love/’ next to the largest city in 
the New World, and the metropolis of Pennsylvania, is situated 
on the Delaware and Schuylkill Rivers, 'six miles* above their 
junction, and ninety-six miles from the Atlantic Ocean. The 
latitude of the city is about 40 degrees north, its length from 


142 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY 


north to south is twenty-three miles, and its width varies from 
five to eight miles. It is an important commercial city, but its 
chief source of wealth are its manufactures. Textile fabrics, 
such as carpets, hosiery, silks, cottons, woolens, and mixed 
goods are the leading products. But, iron and steel, 
machinery, hardware, boots and shoes, chemicals, and 
brewery products are manufactured on a large scale. 

Philadelphia has many beautiful parks and squares, but its 
great park is Fairmount Park, containing 2740 acres. It ex- 
tends along both banks of the Schuylkill R. for more than 
seven miles, and along both banks of Wissahickon Creek for 
more than six miles. The Great Exposition of 1876 was held 
in this park. The reservoirs which supply the city with wa- 
ter, taken from the Schuylkill, are also here. 

The city contains many buildings of interest, among which 
are Independence Hall, the United States Mint, Girard Col- 
lege and the University of Pennsylvania. Pop. 848,000. 

Camden , a manufacturing center, is situated on the east bank 
of the Delaware, opposite Philadelphia. 

Reading , noted for the mauufacture of iron and steel, is 
situated on the Schuylkill. 

Trenton , the capital of New Jersey, is on the Delaware R., 
a little above the great bend. 

Easton , at the junction of the Lehigh and Delaware Rivers, 
is noted for its iron-furnaces, rolling-mills, machine-shops, etc. 
It is also a railroad center. 

Mauch Chunk , the most picturesque town of the United 
States, is situated on the Lehigh River, in the center of the 
great anthracite coal-fields of Pennsylvania. 

Delaware Water Gap , the famous gorge in the Blue Mts., 
through which the Delaware forces its way, is celebrated both 
in prose and poetry for its beautiful and sublime scenery. 

Port Jervis, a city of New York, is situated on the Dela- 
ware R., at the junction of three States. 

Delaware River rises among the Catskill Mts. 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


H3 


In sketching the Delaware,, the pupils should be required to 
show all boundaries that touch it on either side. Probably at 
first they will place the northern boundary of New Jersey as 
far north as that of Pennsylvania. Have them sketch the 
State of New Jersey as a whole, showing each town in its 
proper position. 


CHAPTER IV. 


THE CHESAPEAKE BAY AND ITS TRIBUTARIES. 

The Chesapeake Bay is a long, irregular arm of the Atlan- 
tic, dividing both Virginia and Maryland into two parts. On 
the north side of the entrance into the bay is Cape Charles, 
and on the south side, Cape Henry; both are in Virginia. 
The bay is famous for its oysters, terrapins and canvas-back 
ducks. Do you think there are large cities on its east shore, 
or any rivers of importance that flow in on that side? Why? 

The Chesapeake and Delaware Canal crosses the peninsula 
from the head of Chesapeake Bay to the Delaware Bay, 
making a short and safe route for coasting vessels, canal boats, 
small steamers and barges, from the Chesapeake to Philadel- 
phia. It is 1314 miles long. 

Susquehanna River rises among the Catskill Mountains, 
and flows southwest into Pennsylvania, in which State it makes 
several large bends, and finally flows southeast into the Chesa- 
peake Bay. 

* York , an important town of Pennsylvania, is some distance 
west of the Susquehanna, in the midst of a fertile and popu- 
lous farming region. 

Harrisburg , the capital of Pennsylvania, is situated on the 
left bank of the Susquehanna. Its position near rich coal and 
iron mines has enabled it to enter extensively into manufac- 
turing. 

Juniata River is an important tributary of the Susque- 
hanna. It rises among the Alleghany Mountains, and flows 
east, joining the Susquehanna as that river is about breaking 
through the Blue Ridge. It is known far and near for its 
beautiful scenery. 


(i44) 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


H5 


West Branch of the Susquehanna. 

Wilkesbarre is situated in the valley of Wyoming. It 
manufactures locomotives, carriages, railroad cars, and pottery. 

Scranton , a mining and manufacturing city, is in the midst 
of the great anthracite coal regions on the Lackawanna 
River. Between the Susquehanna and Delaware Rivers 
are situated the richest anthracite coal-fields of the world. 
Did you ever see any anthracite coal ? 

Elmira is situated in southern New York, on the Chemung 
River. 

Binghamton , an important railroad town is in the southern 
part of New York, on the Susquehanna River. 

Catskill Mountains . 

Sketch the Susquehanna River, showing its tributaries and 
towns, and the State boundaries which it crosses. 

Baltimore, the largest city of Maryland, is on the Patapsco 
River, fourteen miles from its mouth. Its trade and manufac- 
tures are important. Among its industries are ship- building, 
iron and copper works, woolen and cotton manufactures, 
sugar- refining, petroleum-refining, distilling, tanning, etc. It 
has the largest rolling mills in the United States, and is the 
chief point for working the rich copper ores of Lake Superior. 
The city is also noted for the canning of oysters. 

Annapolis , the capital of Maryland and the seat of the 
United States Naval Academy, is on the Severn River. 

Potomac River rises among the Alleghany Mountains, and 
flows southeast into the Chesapeake Bay. It separates Mary- 
land from Virginia and West Virginia, and opposite its 
mouth is the boundary between Maryland and the “ Eastern 
Counties ” of Virginia. 

Bull Run is a small stream that flows into the Oceoquon 
River, one of the tributaries of the Potomac. It is of histori- 
cal importance. 

Mount Vernon, the home of Washington, is on the west 
bank of the Potomac R.. fifteen miles below Washington Citv. 


146 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


The mansion and tomb of Washington, with six acres of 
land, now belong to the women of America. 

Alexandria , an important railroad town, is on the west bank 
of the Potomac. 

Washington , the capital of the United States, is situated on 
the left bank of the Potomac, in the District of Columbia. It 
is 38 miles from Baltimore, 226 from New York, 763 from 
Chicago and 1,203 from New Orleans. 

The Capitol, probably the most magnificent public building 
in the world, is situated near the center of the city. Most of 
the streets run due east and west, and north and south. Those 
running east and west are distinguished by letters, — the first 
street north of the Capitol being A Street North, the second 
B Street North, &c. ; the first street south of the Capitol is A 
Street South, the second B Street South, &c. The streets 
running north and south are numbered, — the first street east of 
the Capitol being 1st Street East, and the first street west of 

the Capitol being 1st Street West, &c. In addition to these, 
there are several other streets or “Avenues ” which radiate 

from certain centers towards all points of the compass; these 
are named after the States; the most important are those which 
radiate from the Capitol. 

The President’s Mansion, (usually called the u White 
House,”) is on Pennsylvania Avenue, one-and-a-half miles 
northwest of the Capitol. The Smithsonian Institute, “ for 
the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men,” is situ- 
ated west of the Capitol. Still farther west is the Washing- 
ton Monument, 555 feet high, the highest structure ever built 
by man. The Patent Office, in which are kept models of all 
machines invented in the country, is east of the White House. 

Arlington Heights , once the home of Robert E. Lee, is 
across the Potomac from Washington. A part of the estate 
is set apart as a National Cemetery. 

Frederick , noted for its foundries and tanneries, is situated 
in the valley of the Monocacy, in Maryland. 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


*47 


“ Up from the meadows, rich with corn, 

Clear in the cool September morn, 

a The clustered spires of Frederick stand, 
Green-walled by the hills of Maryland.” 

Gettysburg , noted for the great battle in 1863, is in the 
southern part of Pennsylvania, on Rock Creek, whose waters 
reach the Potomac through the Monocacy. 

Shenandoah R. rises in the western part of Virginia, and 
flows northeast into the Potomac, which it reaches in time to 
aid that river in forcing its way through the Blue Ridge. Its 
valley is the “ garden of Virginia.” 

Harper's Ferny, situated at the confluence of the Shenan- 
doah and Potomac, was the scene of the “ John Brown Raid.” 

Winchester is in the Valley of the Shenandoah, at some 
distance from the river. Several battles were fought near it 
during the Civil War. 

Staunton , an educational and manufacturing center, is near 
the head waters of the Shenandoah. 

Cumberland is situated on the left bank of the Potomac, 
and marks the narrowest part of Maryland. 

The Branches of the Potomac rise among the Alleghany 
Mts. 

The surface of Maryland is low and level in the east, and 
very rough in the northwest. 

Coal and iron are the principal minerals of the State; its 
abundance of coal enables it to engage profitably in manufac- 
turing. 

The most of the State is well suited for farming. Large 
crops of wheat, oats and Indian corn are raised; and it is one 
of the chief tobacco-producing States of the Union. 

Sketch the Potomac River; also Maryland and Delaware. 

Going south we come to: 

Rappahannock River\ and ascending it we find 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


1 48 

Fredericksburg , noted for its manufacturing facilities, and 
for the great battle of 1S62. 

R api dan, a river of Virginia, rises on the southeastern slope 
of the Blue Ridge, and flows east into the Rappahannock. 
On the south side is the “ Wilderness.” 

Yorkto'vcn , a town of historical importance, is on the right 
bank of the York River, about ten miles from its mouth. 

Fortress Monroe , one of the principal fortifications in the 
United States, is situated on “ Old Point Comfort,” on the 
north bank of the James River, at its mouth. 

James River , the principal river of Virginia, rises among 
the Appalachian Mountains, and flows southeast into the 
Chesapeake Bay. 

Hampton Roads is an expansion of the James River, near 
its mouth. 

Norfolk , the chief seaport of Virginia, is on the right bank 
of the Elizabeth River, a navigable inlet of Hampton Roads. 
The Elizabeth is nearly a mile wide, and navigable for ves- 
sels of the largest class. Norfolk is the chief naval station of 
the United States, and at Gosport, one of its suburbs, is situ- 
ated one of the United States navy yards. 

Williamsburg is between the James and York Rivers. 

C h ickah om iny rises northwest of Richmond, flows south- 
east, then south into the James; it flows through extensive 
swamps. 

Appomattox River flows east into the James River. 

Petersburg , a prosperous manufacturing city, is situated 
on the south bank of the Appomattox. Small steamers ascend 
the river to this place. It was an important point during the 
Civil War. 

Appomattox Court House is a village on the Appomattox 
River, near its source. Here General Lee surrendered his 
army to General Grant, April 9, 1865. 

Richmond , the capital and largest city of Virginia, is on the 
north bank of the James River, about one hundred miles by 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


149 


water from the Chesapeake Bay. The commerce of the city 
is great, the chief exports being tobacco and flour. Its manu- 
facturing establishments include iron works, machine shops, 
foundries, sugar refineries, cigar factories, coach and wagon 
factories, etc. Richmond was the capital of the Southern 
Confederacy during the Civil War. 

Lynchburg , noted for the manufacture of iron and iron 
ware, is situated on the James River, near the eastern base of 
the Blue Ridge. 

The Natural Bridge spans Cedar-Creek, a small tributary 
of the James, flowing in from the north. The Bridge is about 
two miles from the James. 

Notice how close the headwaters of the James are to those 
of the Shenandoah. 

Cape Henry . 

Sketch the James River; also the Chesapeake Bay, showing 
the mouth of each of its tributaries. 

The surface of Virginia may be divided into three parts — 
the tide water region, or lowland along the Chesapeake Bay, 
the highland at the base of the mountains, and the long valleys 
between the ranges of the Appalachian Mountains. 

Corn and tobacco are the principal crops of the tide-water 
region; wheat, corn and oats of the highlands at the foot of 
the mountains, and wheat, corn and tobacco, of the valleys. 

The mountains of Virginia contain rich deposits of coal and 
iron, which are being extensively mined. 

Make scheme, and review. 


CHAPTER V. 


THE CAROLIN AS, GEORGIA, FLORIDA, AND ALABAMA. 

We now will go south, visiting along the coast, ascending the 
rivers, and seeing the cities. 

Cape Hatteras is part of a long, narrow sand bank, separ- 
ated from the mainland of North Carolina by Pamlico Sound. 

Albemarle Sound , a large body of water in the eastern 
part of North Carolina, is separated from the Atlantic by a 
narrow sand bank. Small vessels can pass from the Sound 
to Chesapeake Bay through the Dismal Swamp Canal. 

Dismal Swamp lies partly in Virginia, and partly in 
North Carolina. A large portion of it is covered with forests 
of cypress and cedar. 

Roanoke , one of the principal rivers of North Carolina, is 
formed by the Dan and Staunton Rivers. 

Roanoke Island \s situated between Albemarle and Pamlico 
Sounds, and is of historical importance. 

Pamlico Sound , a large body of salt water in the eastern 
part of North Carolina. It is separated from the Atlantic by 
sand banks; there are several inlets connecting it with the 
Ocean. 

Neuse River flows into Pamlico Sound. 

New Berne , noted for its exports of grain, lumber, tar and 
turpentine, is on the right bank of the Neuse, at the mouth 
of the Trent River. 

Raleigh , the capital of North Carolina, is near the Neuse 
River. 

Cape Fear, 

Cape Fear River , the largest stream in North Carolina, is 
formed by the Deep and Haw Rivers. 

( ! "O) 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 151 

Wilmington , the principal sea port and largest city of 
North Carolina, is on the Cape Fear River, about thirty 
miles from its mouth. The city has several rice mills and ten 
turpentine distilleries. Its chief exports are turpentine, tar, 
pitch, rosin, tobacco and cotton. It is the greatest market in 
the world for u naval stores.” Population, i 7 > 35 °* * 

Fayetteville , on the Cape Fear River, at the head of navF 
gation, has considerable trade. 

Yadkin River rises in the northwestern part of North 
Carolina, and flows south through South Carolina, in which 
State it is known as the Great Pedee River. 

The surface of North Carolina is low in the east, rolling in 
the center, and very mountainous in the Western part. Black 
Dome, 6,707 feet high, is the highest point east of the Missis- 
sippi River. 

Mica , zinc and gold are profitably mined in different parts 
of N. Carolina. Did you ever see any mica? 

The State is especially noted for the products of its pine 
forests, its tobacco, corn and wheat 

Sketch North Carolina. 

Santee , the largest river of South Carolina, is formed by 
the Congaree and Wateree Rivers. The latter rises in N. 
Carolina, where it is known as the Catawba River. 

Charlotte , a railroad center of N. Carolina, is a short dis- 
tance east of the Catawba R . 

Columbia , the capital of S. Carolina, is situated on the left 
bank of the Congaree R. 

Charleston , the chief commercial city of S. Carolina, is 
situated about seven miles from the Atlantic, at the head of 
Charleston Harbor, on a narrow peninsula between the Ash- 
ley and Cooper Rivers. The entrance to the harbor is about 
a mile wide, and is defended by Fort Moultrie, on Sullivan’s 
Island, and Fort Sumter, raised on a shoal in the harbor. A 
fine view of the city is obtained in entering the harbor from 
the sea; and, as it is built on low and level land, it seems to 


152 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


rise from the water as we approach ; whence it has been called 
the “American Venice.” 

The chief exports are cotton and rice. 

Beaufort is on Port Royal River, about fourteen miles from 
the Atlantic. 

Savannah is one of the largest rivers of the South. 

Sketch the two Carolinas. 

The surface of South Carolina is very low in the south and 

hill v in the north. 

* 

The principal crops are corn, cotton and rice. The many 
islands along the coast are noted for the u sea-island cotton.” 

Savannah, the principal sea-port of Georgia, is situated on 
the right bank of the Savannah River, about eighteen miles 
from its mouth. The city occupies a bluff about forty feet 
high, and extends along the river 2 y 2 miles. 

It is one of the most handsome cities of the country; its 
broad streets and beautiful parks are noted for their semi- 
tropical trees and flowers. The principal export is cotton. 

Augusta is on the right bank of the Savannah. 

Altamaha River is formed by the union of the Oconee 
and Ocmulgee Rivers. 

Milledgeville manufactures cotton and woolen goods. 

Macon , an educational center, is situated on the Ocmulgee 
River, at the head of navigation. 

St, Mary's River rises near the southern border of the 
Okefinokee Swamp. It forms the boundary, for the most of 
its course, between Georgia and Florida. 

St. John's River rises in the southeastern part of Florida, 
flows north almost to the northern boundary of the State, 
then east to the Atlantic. It is from two to three miles wide 
at different places, and is navigable for 250 miles. 

Jacksonville , a beautiful city of Florida, is on the left bank 
of the St. John’s. It ships 45,000,000 oranges and 60,000,000 
feet of yellow pine, annually. 


/ 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 153 

St. Augustine , the oldest city in the United States, is on 
the coast. 

Cape Sable is the southern point of the mainland of the 
United States. 

Florida Keys , a chain of islands south of the peninsula of 
Florida. 

Key West , the largest city of Florida, is situated on 
Thompson’s Island, one of the Florida Keys. It has ex- 
tensive manufactures of cigars, and valuable sponge-fisheries. 
Population, 9,890. 

Everglades , a marshy region of Southern Florida. A large 
part of it is covered w ith w^ater, which encloses hundreds of 
small islands, covered with dense thickets of oaks, cypress 
and palmetto. Many alligators and bears are found here. 

Ta?i 7 pa Bay , an arm of the Gulf of Mexico. - 

Suwanee River. 

“ Way down on de Suwanee River,” etc. 

Appalachee Bay . 

Tallahassee , the capital of Florida. 

Appalachicola , a city of Southern Florida, is at the mouth 
of the Appalachicola River. 

Appalachiola River is formed by the union of the Flint and 
Chattahoochee Rivers, and flows into the Bay of Appalachi- 
cola. 

Chattahooche River, for much of its course, is on the bound- 
ary between Alabama and Georgia. 

Atlanta , the capital and largest city of Georgia, is in the 
northern part of the State, seven miles southeast of the Chat- 
tahoochee. Atlanta is probably the most flourishing city in 
the Southern States. It has several iron foundries, machine 
shops, cotton factories, and manufactories of farming imple- 
ments. It is also an important railroad center, and has an ex- 
tensive commerce. 

Georgia is one of the most prosperous of the Southern 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


VS4 

States. The surface is low and level in the south, but in the 
north it is very hilly, and'even mountainous. 

Gold, coal, iron and marble are found in the mountains, and 
mined in considerable quantities. 

The principal crops are cotton, corn and wheat. 

Sketch Georgia and South Carolina. 

Pensacola, an important town, is situated on Pensacola Bay. 
The United States has a navy yard a short distance below the 
city. The entrance to the harbor is defended by Fort Pickens, 
situated on the west end of Santa Rosa Island. 

Sketch Florida, noticing carefully the shape of the northern 
boundary. 

Florida is becoming famous for the cultivation of oranges, 
lemons, sugar-cane, pine-apples and bananas. 

Yellow pine timber is very abundant in the State. 

Mobile , the largest city and only seaport of Alabama, is 
situated on the west bank of the Mobile River, at its entrance 
into Mobile Bay. It is a commercial city, and exports large 
quantities of cotton, lumber and naval stores; coffee is one of 
the principal imports. 

Mobile River is formed by the junction of the Tombigbee 
and Alabama Rivers. 

Selma, an important manufacturing center, is on the right 
bank of the Alabama River. 

Montgomery, the capital of Alabama, is situated on the left 
bank of the Alabama River. It has considerable commerce, 
as the Alabama is navigable for steamboats. 

Alabama River is formed by the union of the Coosa and 
Tallapoosa Rivers. 

Alabama is one of the principal cotton producing States. It 
has very extensive and valuable coal fields. 

Sketch Alabama, Georgia, South Carolina and Florida. 


CHAPTER VI. 


THE LOWER MISSISSIPPI AND OHIO BASINS. 

f 

Pearl R. rises in Mississippi, and flows south into the Gulf 
of Mexico. Through the lower part of its course, it is on the 
boundary between Mississippi and Louisiana. 

Jackson , the capital of Mississippi, is on the Pearl River. 

Lake Pontchartrain. Lake Borgne . 

Mississippi , the principal river of North America, rises in 
the northern part of Minnesota, in L. Itasca, and flows east of 
south into the Gulf of Mexico. The length of the river is 
2,616 miles. But if we regard the Missouri R. as the true 
Upper Mississippi, its length from the source of Madison 
Fork, (the real source of the Missouri,) to the Gulf is 4,194 
miles. On leaving L. Itasca, the Mississippi is ten or twelve 
feet wide, and fourteen inches deep; its average width from 
Cairo to the Gulf is 3,000 feet, and its maximum depth is 
about 125 feet. The range between high and low water at 
Cairo is 51 feet, and at New Orleans 14.4 feet. The river 
carries, annually, sedimentary matter enough to the Gulf to 
cover one square mile, to a depth of 241 feet. u The Missis- 
sippi boasts no fewer than 55 tributary streams, with a total 
length of navigation of 16,571 miles, or about two-thirds of 
the distance round the world. Even this, however, represents 
but a small amount of the navigation which follow when the 
Federal Government has made the contemplated improve- 
ments in the Upper Mississippi, in the Minnesota, Wisconsin, 
and other rivers in which it is now engaged. But while the 
Mississippi has 16,571 miles navigable to steamboats, it has 
20,221 miles navigable to barges. This navigation is divided 
between 22 States and Territories. Louisiana, Arkansas, Mis- 

(i55) 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


156 

sissippi, Montana, Dakota and the Indian Territory, possess 
more miles of navigable stream than miles of railroad, all of 
which are open to everybody who wishes to engage in com- 
merce.” The Mississippi discharges its waters into the Gull 
through several mouths, or “ Passes”, the entrances to all of 
which were obstructed by “ bars,” until Captain Eads con- 
structed his famous “jetties.” These are artificial embank- 
ments, built along both sides of the river, i ; ooo feet apart, and 
extending into the Gulf 2J/^ miles. They are in the “ South 
Pass.” These cost over $5,000,000. “Who paid the 
bill?” 

New Orleans, the largest city and commercial metropolis of 
the Southern States, is situated on the left bank of the Missis- 
sippi R., about 1 10 miles from its mouth. It is built on land 
gently descending from the river towards a marshy tract of 
land in the rear, and from tw 7 o to four feet below the level of 
the river at high-water mark. An overflow is prevented by 
an embankment of earth called the levee. New Orleans is 
the chief cotton and sugar market in the Union. It also ex- 
ports large quantities of tobacco, flour and pork. Not u in- 
frequently from 1,000 to 1,500 steamers and flat boats may be 
seen lying at the levee; and, except in the summer months, 
its wharves are thronged with hundreds of ships and sailing 
craft from all quarters of the globe. Pop. 216,000. Tine 
next largest City in the southern or Gulf vStates is Charleston, 
with ^0,000. Notice the comparison. 

Baton Rouge , the capital of Louisiana, is on the east bank 
of the Mississippi. 

Red River , the most southern of the great tributaries of 
the Mississippi, rises in the Staked Plain, near the eastern 
border of New Mexico, and flows southeast, forming the 
boundary between Indian Territory and Texas; and, for a 
short distance, between Texas and Arkansas. Opposite its 
mouth is the boundary between Louisiana and Mississippi. 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


*57 


Shreveport , a flourishing city of Northwestern Louisiana, 
is situated on the Red River. 

Louisiana is the greatest sugar-producing State in the 
Union. Cotton, corn and tobacco are the other principal 
crops. 

Natchez is noted for the shipping of cotton. 

Vicksburg , the chief commercial pore between Memphis 
and New Orleans, is built on uneven and elevated ground. 
Its principal business is in cotton, and the cotton trade. It is 
noted for the siege it sustained in 1863. 

Yazoo R . enters the Mississippi from the northeast, a short 
distance above Vicksburg. 

Mississippi produces the most cotton of any State in the 
Union. Corn and tobacco are the other principal crops. 

Arkansas R . rises near the center of Colorado, and flows 
southeast through Kansas, Indian Territory and Arkansas, 
into the Mississippi. 

Little Rock , the capital of Arkansas is on the Arkansas R., 
near the central part of the State. 

Hot Springs , a popular resort for invalids, is southwest of 
Little Rock, among the Ozark Mountains. There are about 
100 springs, with temperature varying from 135 0 to 160 °. 
A specially remarkable feature about them is that there are 
springs of very cold water and very hot ones so close that a 
person can sit with one hand in a hot spring and the other in 
a cold one. 

Fort Smith is in the western part of Arkansas on the Ar- 
kansas R. 

Tahlequah , the principal town in the Indian Territory, is 
in the eastern part of the Territory. 

The Indian Territory is set apart by the Government of 
the United States for the use of the Indians. The Gov- 
ernment furnishes them with means for tilling the soil, and 
pays practical farmers to teach them. Many of the tribes are 
quite civilized, and support churches and schools. 


15 $ 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


Each of the leading tribes or nations makes its own laws. 
Tahlequah being the capital of one of the principal nations is 
frequently given as the capital of the Territory. 

No white man is permitted to own land in the Territory, 
unless he has an Indian wife. 

Canadian R. is the largest southern tributary of the Arkan- 
sas River. 

Leadville , noted for its rich silver mines, is situated in Cen- 
tral Colorado. Altitude about 9000 feet. 

Helena , noted for the shipping of cotton, is in the eastern 
part of Arkansas, on the Mississippi. 

The western part of Arkansas is hilly and rolling, owing to 
its being traversed by the Ozark Mountains. 

Cotton, corn and tobacco are the chief productions of the 
State. 

Sketch Arkansas, and show all boundaries that touch its 
borders. 

Memphis , the principal city on the Mississippi between St. 
Louis and New Orleans, is in the southwestern part of Ten- 
nessee. Its cotton trade is very great, and constantly in- 
creasing. 

Colu? 7 ibus is in the western part of Kentucky. 

Ohio R. 

Cairo , the most southern city of Illinois, is situated at the 
junction of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, which position 
gives it great commercial advantages. It is also quite a rail- 
road center. The city is increasing rapidly in wealth and 
population. 

Tennessee R, 

Fort Henry is on the right bank of the Tennessee R., in the 
northern part of Tennessee. 

Pittsburg Landing is a small village on the west bank of 
the Tennessee R., in the southern part of Tennessee. Near 
here was fought a great battle in 1S62. 

Notice that the Tennessee R. forms the boundary for a 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


*59 


short distance between Alabama and Mississippi. In ascend- 
ing the river after our entrance into Alabama, we go east 
almost through that State to its eastern border, when we 
again enter the State of Tennessee, and come to 

Chattanooga , an important railroad center, and a rapidly 
growing city. In its vicinity are Lookout Mountain, Mis- 
sionary Ridge and Chickamauga Creek, all of historical note. 

It will be well, occasionally, to make sketches of important 
neighborhoods. A sketch of Chattanooga and vicinity will be 
of interest. 

Knoxville , the leading city of eastern Tennessee, is situated 
on the Holston River a branch of the Tennessee. 

Cumberland R . flows into the Ohio near the mouth of the 
Tennessee. 

Fort Donelson , of historic fame, is on the left bank of the 
Cumberland, in the northern part of Tennessee. 

Nashville , the capital of Tennessee, is on the left bank of the 
Cumberland R. “ It is noted as the educational center of the 
Southern States, and is distinguished for its enterprising spirit, 
literary taste, and polished society.” 

The surface of Tennessee is rough and broken in the east,, 
and low and level in the west. 

The principal crops are cotton, corn, wheat, oats and tobacco. 

S hawneetown, a mining and manufacturing town, is on the 
Ohio, in the southeastern part of Illinois. 

Wabash River forms the boundary between Illinois and 
Indiana for about 200 miles. 

Little Wabash , flows into the Wabash from the northwest. 

White R. flows in from the northeast. 

Indianapolis , the capital and largest city of Indiana, is situ- 
ated on the West Fork of the White River, 109 miles west of 
Cincinnati, and 195 miles east of south from Chicago. “ It is 
the largest city in the United States not situated on navigable 
waters.” Being the center of one of the greatest railroad sys- 
tems in the United States, it has a very extensive commerce. 


i6o 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


It is also noted for its rolling mills, foundries and machine shops, 
and for the great quantity of pork which it packs annually. 

Vincennes is on the left bank of the W abash. 

Embarras , a river of Illinois, flows into the Wabash. 

Charleston , a city of Southeastern Illinois, is situated near the 
Embarras. 

Terre Haute , the seat of the Indiana State Normal School, 
is on the left bank of the Wabash R. It is an important rail- 
road town. 

Danville , an important mining and railroad town, is situated 
in the eastern part of Illinois, on a tributary of the Wabash. 

La Fayette , on the Wabash, is noted for its manufactures of 
machinery, reapers and farming implements of various kinds. 

Logansport, a noted shipping point for grain, lumber and 
pork, is situated on the W abash. 

Evansville, \\\ the southwestern part of Indiana, on the Ohio 
R. is an important commercial and manufacturing city. 

Green River flows into the Ohio from Kentucky, not far 
from Evansville. Near it is the famous Mammoth Cave. 

Louisville , the chief city of Kentucky, is situated at the 
Falls of the Ohio. The Falls, which can be seen from the 
city, disappear almost entirely at times of high water, but 
when the water is low, steamboats have to pass around the 
Falls by means of a canal two and a half miles long. The 
commerce of Louisville is immense. It is one of the largest 
leaf-tobacco markets in the world, and one of the most impor- 
tant markets in the United States for live stock. Pork pack- 
ing is carried on extensively, and its manufactures of iron, 
leather and farming implements are very valuable. It is the 
distributing point for the great quantities of whisky made in 
Kentucky. 

New Albany is situated in Indiana, on the Ohio R., five 
miles below Louisville. There are many manufactories here. 

Frankfort , the capital of Kentucky, is on the Kentucky 
River. 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY 


161 


Lexington , a beautiful city of Kentucky, is situated in the 
famous blue-grass region. The surrounding country is noted 
for its choice cattle and horses. 

Miami River flows into the Ohio R. on the boundary be- 
tween Indiana and Ohio. 

Dayton , noted for its manufactures of railroad cars, paper^ 
stoves, cotton and woolen goods, is situated on the left bank of 
the Miami. 

Cincinnati is the largest city of Ohio, and its commercial 
metropolis; it is situated on the Ohio R. On the opposite bank 
of the river are the cities of Covington and Newport, separated 
by the Licking River. Cincinnati has a river frontage of ten 
miles, and extends back about three miles. It is surrounded 
by hills from 400 to 500 feet high, forming one of the most 
beautiful amphitheaters in the country. The commerce of 
Cincinnati is very large, as its noble river and magnificent 
system of railroads give it access to all parts of the country. 
The city has over 5000 manufacturing establishments. “Iron, 
furniture, boots and shoes, beer and whisky, machinery and 
steamboats are the leading manufactures, but, pork packing is 
the principal industry.” 

Columbus , the capital of Ohio, is situated near the center of 
the State, on the Scioto River. It is noted for its railroads 
and manufactories. 

Big Sandy R. is on the boundary between Kentucky and 
West Virginia. Notice the shape of the Ohio River at this 
point. 

Sketch Kentucky and Tennessee, and enough of Alabama 
to show all of the Tennessee River. 

Several ranges of the Appalachian Mountains pass through 
the eastern and southeastern parts of Kentucky, hence these 
parts of the State are very rough and broken; the remainder 
is level, or slightly rolling. 

Charleston , an important city of West Virginia, is situated 
on the Great Kanawha River, at the mouth of the Elk River. 
It is in the center of a rich coal and salt producing region. 


1 6 2 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


Parkersburg , noted for its extensive trade in petroleum, is 
on the Ohio River, at the mouth of the Little Kanawha 
River. The basin of this river is the principal oil region of 
West Virginia. The Ohio is spanned at Parkersburg by a 

railroad bridge one and one -third miles long. 

Marietta , the oldest city in Ohio, is on the right bank of 

the Ohio River, at the mouth of the Muskingum R. Here 

are found numerous earthworks of the ancient a mound- 

builders.” 

Zanesville , on the Muskingum R., is a prosperous manu- 
facturing town. Steamers ascend the river to this point. 

Wheeling , the capital and largest city of West Virginia, is 

in the northern part of the State, on the Ohio R. It is a 
manufacturing center, containing several blast furnaces, iron 
foundries and forges. It is especially noted for the manufac- 
turing of nails, glassware, steam engines, paper and cigars. 

Notice the shape of the state at this point. 

Pittsburgh the second city of Pennsylvania in size and im- 
portance, is at the junction of the Alleghany and Mononga- 
hela Rivers, which here form the Ohio. Its situation 
gives the city great advantages for commerce; so it has be- 
come the center of an extensive trade with the Western States. 
But, Pittsburg is especially noted for its manufactures of iron 
steel, copper and glass. About one-fourth of the iron pro- 
duced in the United States is used by the rolling mills and 
manufacturing establishments of this one city. There are 
over fifty glass-manufacturing houses. It is also largely inter- 
ested in the production of petroleum, and contains a large 

number of refineries. On the opposite bank of the Alleghany 
R. is the city of Alleghany (or Allegheny) ; and on the left 
bank of the Monongahela is Birmingham. Both are flourish- 
ing cities, and are connected with Pittsburg by several bridges. 

Oil City is situated on the Alleghany R. at the mouth of 
Oil Creek. It is the center of the great oil region of Penn- 
sylvania. 

Sketch the Ohio River, showing the tributaries and cities 
studied in connection with it, and all State boundaries that 
touch the river. 


CHAPTER VII. 


THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI AND MISSOURI BASINS. 

/ 

In ascending the Mississippi from Cairo we notice the Big 
Muddy R. coming in from Illinois. , 

Carbondale , near the Big Muddy, is the seat of the Southern 
Illinois Normal University. 

Kaskaskia R . flows into the Mississippi about midway be- 
tween the mouths of the Ohio and Illinois Rivers. 

Chester , the seat of the Southern Illinois Penitentiary, is on 
the Mississippi R., at the mouth of the Kaskasia. 

Kaskaskia is on the Kaskaskia R., a mile east of the Mis- 
sissippi. The first settlement in Illinois was made by the 
French at Kaskaskia, about 1680. 

Vandalia , formerly the capital of Illinois, is on the Kas- 
kaskia. 

Shelbyville is on the Kaskaskia (or Okaw) R. 

St . Louis , the largest city in the basin of the Mississippi, is 
on the Mississippi R., twenty miles below the mouth of the 
Missouri. The commerce of the city is very large, the chief 
articles of receipt and shipment being bread stuffs, live stock, 
cotton, lead, hay, wool, hides, lumber and tobacco. But vast 
as are its commercial interests, the prosperity of St. Louis is 
chiefly due to its manufactures, in which it employs 50,000 
persons. 

East St . Louis , an important city of Southwestern Illinois, 
is on the Mississippi, opposite St. Louis, with which it is con- 
nected by one of the finest bridges in the world. The bridge 
is built in two stories; the lower one containing a double car- 
track, the upper one, carriage ways, horse car tracks and foot 
paths. After crossing the bridge into St. Louis, the trains pass 

( i 6 3 ) 


164 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


under a large part of the city, through a tunnel 4800 feet long. 
The bridge and tunnel cost $10,000,000. At East St. Louis 
are situated the largest stock yards in the country. 

Belleville , a noted mining and manufacturing town, is situ- 
ated fifteen miles southeast of St. Louis. 

Ascending the Missouri R. we notice 

yefferson City , the capital of Missouri. 

Kansas City , the second city of Missouri in population and 
importance, is on the right bank of the Missouri, at the mouth 
of the Kansas R. It is sometimes called the “ Gate City of 
the Southwest.” Its position on the Missouri R. and at the 
center of an extensive railroad system assures it a large com- 
merce. It is also an important manufacturing city. 

Kansas R . is formed by the union of the Smoky Hill and 
Republican Rivers. 

Lawrence, the seat of the University of Kansas, is on the 
right bank of the Kansas R. 

Topeka , the capital of Kansas, is situated on both banks of 
the Kansas R. 

Leavenworth , the largest city of Kansas, and an important 
commercial center, is on the Missouri R. 

Atchison , an important railroad center, is in the northeastern 
part of Kansas on the Missouri R. Over eighty railroad trains 
arrive and depart daily. 

St. yoseph , the third city of Missouri, in size, is in the west- 
ern part of the State. 

Platte River . 

Lincoln , the capital of Nebraska, is on Salt R. 

North Pork of the Platte rises in North Park. 

South Fork of the Platte rises in the South Park, and flows 
northeast to join the North Fork. 

Cheyenne City, the capital of Wyoming Territory, is situ- 
ated nearly due west from the union of the two F orks of the 
Platte. It is in the southeastern part of the Territory. 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


165 

Denver , the capital and largest city of Colorado, is on the 
South Fork of the Platte, at an elevation of 5196 feet, and 922 
miles west of St. Louis. It is the center of rich gold and sil- 
ver mining districts, and is rapidly becoming one of the great 
commercial cities of the Union. 

Pike's Peak , 14,347 high, is situated nearly south of 
Denver, at the entrance to the South Park. 

Notice that the head waters of the South Platte are close to 
those of the Arkansas River. 

Omaha , the largest city of Nebraska, is the terminus of over 
a dozen railroads from the east and south, which connect here 
with the Union Pacific. A costly bridge connects the city 
with Council Bluffs. Omaha is an important commercial and 
manufacturing center. 

Council Bluffs, the principal city of Western Iowa, is on 
the Missouri R. It is a very important railroad center. 

Big Sioux P. is on the boundary between Iowa and Da- 
kota. 

Yankton , the most populous city of Dakota, is in the south- 
eastern part of the Territory, on the Missouri R. 

Deadwood , a famous mining town, is situated in the south- 
western part of Dakota, among the Black Hills, and between 
the forks of the Cheyenne R. The surrounding country is 
famous for its rich deposits of gold. 

Bismarck , the capital of Dakota, is on the left bank of the 
Missouri R. The Northern Pacific Railroad crosses the river 
at this point. 

Dakota is fast becoming one of the great wheat fields of the 
world. 

Yellowsto 7 ie R. rises near Union Peak, in latitude 44 0 N. 
and longitude iio°W., and flows northward through the 
National Park, and then northeast into the Missouri. Its 
principal tributary is the Big Horn River. 

Yellowstone National Park is a tract of country sixty-five 
miles from north to south, and fifty-five miles from east to 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


1 66 


west, set apart by Congress for a great national park. It is 
mostly in the northwestern corner of Wyoming, but includes 
a small portion of Montana. “ It certainly possesses striking 
characteristics for the purpose to which it has been devoted, 
exhibiting the grand and magnificent in its snow-capped 
mountains and dark canons, the picturesque in its splendid 
water-falls and strangely formed rocks, the beautiful in the 
sylvan shore of its noble lake, and the phenomenal in its gey- 
sers, hot springs, and mountains of sulphur. It may be claimed 
that in no other portion of the globe are there united so many 
surprising features — none where the conditions of beauty and 
contrast are so calculated to delight the artist, or where the 
phenomena are so abundant for the entertainment and instruc- 
tion of the student. * * *. 

“ The Yellowstone Lake lies near the southeasterly corner 
of the park, the Yellowstone River flowing from its upper 
boundary, and running almost due north. The lake is twenty- 
two miles in length, and its average width from ten to fifteen 
miles. Its height above the level of the sea is seven thousand 
feet, while its basin is surrounded by mountains reaching an 
altitude of over ten thousand feet, the peaks of which are 
covered with perpetual snow. Numerous hot springs are 
found on the shores of the lake, and also along the banks of 
the river. About fifteen miles from the lake, the river takes 
two distinct precipitous leaps, known as the Upper and Lower 

Falls, and beyond the Falls cuts its way through an immense 
canon, the vertical walls of which reach, at places, the height 
of fifteen hundred feet. Near the western boundarv of the 
park, the Madison R. takes its rise, and along one of the 
branches of this river, known as Fire- Hole River, are found 
numerous extraordinary geysers, some of which throw vol- 
umes of boiling water to a height exceeding two hundred 
feet.”* 


The National Park is the greatest geyser region in the 
world. 


^Picturesque America. 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 167 

Heleiia, the capital of Montana, is situated near the Rocky 
Mountains, about 14 miles west of the Missouri. 

Missouri River is formed by the confluence of the Jeffer- 
son, Gallatin and Madison Rivers. The source of the Madi- 
son is 8,301 feet above the level of the sea, and about two 
miles from the headwaters of the Snake, or Lewis River. 

Montana is noted for its great herds of cattle, and for its 
mines of the precious metals. 

Sketch the Missouri River, being careful to show all State 
and Territorial boundaries which touch its banks. 

Returning to the Mississippi River, we find 

Alton , an important city of Southwestern Illinois. 

Illinois River , the principal river of Illinois, flows into the 
Mississippi River, about eighteen miles above Alton. 

Beardstown is on the Illinois, a short distance below the 
mouth of the Sangamon River. 

Sangamon River , an eastern tributary of the Illinois. 

Lincoln , the seat of the State institution for feeble-minded 
children, is near Salt Creek, a northern tributary of the San- 
gamon. 

Bloomington, an important railroad and educational center, 
is also noted for its fruit nurseries. Near it is Normal, the seat 
of the Illinois State Normal University. 

Springfield , the capital of Illinois, is four miles south of the 
Sangamon River. It is an important mining and manufactur- 
ing center. Here is the Lincoln National Monument, which 
is visited by thousands of persons annually. 

Decatur , an important mining and manufacturing city, is the 
center of an extensive railroad system. 

Pekin , on the left bank of the Illinois River, is noted for its 
distilleries. 

Peoria , the second city of Illinois, in populatiou and import- 
ance, is on the right bank of the Illinois, at the foot of Peoria 
Lake. This city has a large commerce, as many railroads 
meet here; it is also noted for its manufactures, especially for 
the great quantity of whisky which it distills annually. 


i68 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


La Salle , an important mining town, on the Illinois River, 
is the western terminus of the Illinois and Michigan Canal, 
which extends from here to Chicago. 

Vermilion River , a southern tributary of the Illinois. 

Streator , an important coal- mining town, and Pontiac , the 
seat of the State Reform School for boys, are on the Vermilion. 

Ottawa is on the Illinois, at the mouth of the Fox River. 

Aurora , an important railroad town, is situated on the Fox 
River. 

Elgin , noted for its manufacture of watches, is on the Fox 
River. Here is also the Northern Illinois Insane Asylum. 
Elgin is the center of a large district, famous for its dairy pro- 
ducts. 

The Eastern Illinois Insane Asylum is at Kankakee. 

Joliet , the seat of the Illinois State Penitentiary, is on the 
Des Plaines River; it is also noted for its extensive stone quar- 
ries. 

Sketch the Illinois River. 

Hannibal , an impotant railroad town, is on the Mississippi 
River. 

Quincy , the third city of Illinois in size and importance, is 
noted for its railroads, manufactures and commerce. 

Warsaw , an important railroad town, is also on the Missis- 
sippi. 

Des Moines River helps form the boundary between Iowa 
and Missouri, upon it is located 

Des Moines , the capital of Iowa. The city is well supplied 
with water power, and has extensive manufactures of farming 
implements, steam-engines and boilers, railroad cars, and car- 
riages. 

Keokuk , in Southeastern Iowa, is on the Mississippi River, 
at the foot of the Lower Rapids. 

Burlington , a flourishing city of Eastern Iowa, is an impor- 
tant railroad center, and extensively engaged in the manufac- 
ture of machinery, farming implements, flour, railroad cars, and 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 169 

carriages. It is connected with East Burlington, by a railroad 
bridge. Iowa River . 

Cedar Rapids is a town on the Cedar River, and is noted 
for its manufacture of farming implements. 

Iowa City is the seat of the Iowa State University. 

Rock River rises in the northeastern part of Wisconsin, and 
flows southwest into the Mississippi. 

Upon its banks and tributaries are Sterling , extensively 
engaged in the manufacture of farming implements, flour, 
school furniture, carriages, and burial cases. It has, also, 
several foundries and machine shops. 

Dixon , noted for the manufacture of flour and farming im- 
plements. 

Belvidere , noted for the manufacture of cheese and farming 
implements, is in Northern Illinois, on an eastern branch of the 
Rock, also 

Rockford , largely engaged in the manufacture of reapers, 
cultivators, pumps and carriages, is on Rock River. It has 
several paper-mills, foundries, machine shops, breweries, and a 
watch factory. 

Freeport is on the Pecatonica, a western tributary of the 
Rock. 

Beloit , an important city of Southern Wisconsin, actively 
engaged in the manufacture of farming implements and paper. 

Janesville , a flourishing city of Wisconsin, contains a large 
cotton-factory, two woolen factories, several flouring mills, 
foundries, and manufactories for reapers, carriages, and farm- 
ing implements of various descriptions. 

The pupils will notice that all cities on the Rock River are 
extensively engaged in the manufacture of farming imple- 
ments. This is due to the fact that the river flows through a 
very rich, farming country, and furnishes excellent water 
power. 

Sketch Rock River. 


I/O 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


v 
o 

w 

' 

l-H 
0J 

-c < 

-4-J 
<+-. 
o 

r* 

X 
% ^ 

v 

r 1 

H 


It is also well to “draw” pupils out as follows: 

Productions: j 


r 


Surface. \ Therefore ; 


V 


A 


\ 


Occupations 


of People: ! Country 




Productions : 


City. 

. j 


Climate. < Therefore:-/ ^ 

7 ’ Occupations 

of People: ^ 


t 


Madison, beautifully situated between two small lakes in 
the southern part of Wisconsin, is the capital of the State. It 
is a railroad and manufacturing center, and the seat of the Wis- 
consin State University. 

We now come to the following towns on or near the Mis- 
sissippi : 

Rock Island , whose prosperity has been derived mainly 
from trade and manufactures. It has several flouring mills, saw 
mills, and manufactories of glass, stoves and farming tools. 

Moline, afew miles above Rock Island, with which it is con- 
nected by a horse railway, is famous for its manufactures of 
farming implements, especially plows. 

Davenport, is at the foot of the Upper Rapids, opposite the 
city of Rock Island, with which it is connected by a magnifi- 
cent iron bridge, built in two stories. The city has large 
manufactories of farming implements, woolen goods, carriages, 
furniture, and lumber. 

Rock Island is between Davenport and Rock Island City. 
It belongs to the United States, and has a United States Ar- 
senal on it. 

Clinton, a railroad and manufacturing city. 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


171 

Galena , noted for its lead mines, is on the Fevre River, six 
miles from its entrance into the Mississippi. 

Dubuque , the principal business center of the lead region of 

the Northwest. The city has an extensive commerce, and is 

•/ * 

largely engaged in manufactures. 

East Dubuque (formerly Dunleith), is in the northwest 
corner of Illinois, opposite the city of Dubuque, with which it 
is connected by an iron bridge. 

The State of Illinois extends from latitude 37 0 N. to latitude 
42^° N. Its length is about 380 miles, and its greatest width 
215 miles. It contains an area of 56,650 square miles, and a 
population of about 3,250,000, and is divided into 102 coun- 
ties. 

The surface of the State is level, there being but very little 
land that connot be cultivated profitably. 

Illinois leads all of the States in the production of corn, and 
ranks among the leading States in the production of wheat, 
oats and barley. 

Lead and coal are the principal minerals. The first of these 
is found in the northwestern part of the State, while the second 
is found in nearly all parts of the State, south of Ottawa. To 
this abundance of 'fuel is largely due the prominent position 
the State -has taken among the manufacturing States of the 
country. 

It has the most miles of railroad of any State in the Union. 

Ten magnificent railroad bridges cross the Mississippi from 
Illinois, and connect it with the States west of the river. 

Its network of railroads, and the two noble rivers that wash 
its borders, together with Lake Michigan, have enabled it to 
become one of the chief commercial States of the nation. 

Sketch the State of Illinois. 

Wisconsin River rises in the northern part of the State of 
Wisconsin, and flows southwest into the Mississippi River, 
about four miles below Prairie du Chien. “Steamboats as- 
cend it to Portage City, from which they can pass through a 
short canal into Fox River.” 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


172 

We find the following cities on the Mississippi and its trib- 
utaries: 

La Crosse , an important railroad and manufacturing city 
of Wisconsin 

Winona , a manufacturing city of Minnesota, has several 
flouring mills, saw-mills, foundries, carriage factories, and 
manufactures of barrels, and farming implements. One of the 
Minnesota State Normal Schools is here. 

Eau Claire , the chief commercial city of Northwestern 
Wisconsin, on the Chippewa River, manufactures about 300,- 
000,000 feet of lumber annually. 

Lake Pepin, is an expansion of the Mississippi. 

St, Croix River , a northern tributary of the Mississippi, is 
on the boundary between Wisconsin and Minnesota. 

St. Paul , the capital of Minnesota, is about 409 miles by 
rail, northwest of Chicago. 

St. Paul is situated at the head of navigation, on the Missis- 
sippi, and has a very large commerce both by the river, and 
by its extensive system of railroads. It has manufactures of 
machinery, farming implements, furniture and carriages. 

Minnesota River rises near the source of the Red River of 
the North, and empties into the Mississippi a short distance 
above St. Paul. 

Minnehaha River, the outlet of Lake Minnetonka, flows 
into the Mississippi River near the mouth of the Minnesota. 
Both river and lake are noted for their beautiful scenery. 

Minneapolis, the u Flour City,” is on both banks of the 
Mississippi, at the Falls of St. Anthony. The city has an im- 
mense water-power, which it utilizes in manufacturing various 
kinds of goods, especially flour. Here are situated the largest 
flouring mills of the world, and they are kept at work both 
day and night. 

St. Cloud, a manufacturing city of northern Minnesota, is 
on the right bank of the Mississippi. 

Lake Itasca, the source of the Mississippi River. 

Sketch the Mississippi to the Missouri River. By way of 
review make your outline quite full. 


CHAPTER VIII. 


TEXAS, NEW MEXICO, AND THE PACIFIC SLOPE. 

Returning to the Gulf of Mexico, we find the State of 
Texas, look at the rivers and see the direction in which they 
flow. Beginning at the northeast, we find the Sabine River 
on the boundary between Louisiana and Texas. Continuing 
along the coast we reach 

Galveston , the largest city and chief seaport of Texas, 
situated on the east end of Galveston Island. This is one of 
the most prosperous ports on the Gulf of Mexico. Its princi- 
pal exports are cotton, hides, grain, and pork. 

Dallas , an important city of Texas, is situated on Trinity 
River. 

Austin , the capital of Texas, on the Colorado River. Steam- 
boats ascend the river to this point during high water. 

San Antonio , the second city of Texas in population, is sur- 
rounded by a fertile country and has considerable trade. The 
“Alamo” was at this point. 

The Rio Grande rises in Southwestern Colorado, flows 
southeast through the San Luis Park, south through New 
Mexico, and southeast on the boundary between Texas and 
Mexico, reaching the Gulf of Mexico in latitude 26° N. 
Its length is estimated at 1800 miles, but the volume of 
water which it discharges is small, as it is generally a 
shallow stream. Small steamboats can ascend it about 500 
miles 

Texas , the largest State in the Union, has an area of 274,356 
square miles. It is mainly an agricultural and grazing State, 
and is especially noted for its great herds of cattle and. flocks 
of sheep. The resources of Texas have been rapidly devel- 

( 173 ) 


174 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


oped since the Civil War. It is destined to become one of the 
most important States of the Union. 

Albuquerque , an important railroad town of New Mexico, 
is on the Rio Grande, in the central part of the Territory. It 
is also the center of an important wine-growing region. 

Santa Fe, the capital and largest town of New Mexico, is 
situated about twenty miles east of the Rio Grande. It owes 
its prosperity largely to the rich silver mines in its vicinity. 

A large portion of New Mexico has not sufficient rainfall to 
make agriculture profitable. But whenever the land is irriga- 
ted it yields large crops. The cultivation of the vine is carried 
on extensively in favored localities. 

Since the introduction of railroads, the mineral resources of 
the Territory are being rapidly developed. .Its silver mines 
are very rich. Grazing is also profitable along the mountain 
streams. Most of the houses are built of adobe, or sun-dried 
brick, which seem well suited for the dry, hot climate. 

“The Mexican population of the Territory is very large; the 
Legislature is almost entirely Spanish-speaking, and, as the 
American members are mostly conversant with the language, 
it is practically the only one spoken in that body. English and 
Spanish are both legal languages. The laws and all public 
notices are printed in both tongues.” 

The Colorado River is formed in southern Utah by the 
union of the Grand and Green River>, flows southwest and 
south into the Gulf of California. 

Gila River is an eastern tributary of the Colorado. 

Tucson , formerly the capital of Arizona, is on the Southern 
Pacific Railroad, in the southern part of the Territory. Gold- 
dust, hides, and wool are its principal exports. 

Prescott , the capital of Arizona is situated in a basin among 
the Pine Mountains. Gold and silver are found among the 
neighboring mountains. The city does a large business in 
lumber, wool, and bullion. 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


i75 


Nevada , the “Silver State,” lies mostly in Fremont’s Basin, 
but the sourthern portion is in the basin of the Colorado. The 
prosperity of the State is almost entirely dependent upon its 
mineral resources, as the surface is too rough and dry for pro- 
fitable farming. 

Carson City , the capital of Nevada, is situated in the west- 
ern part of the State, at the eastern base of the “Sierras.” It is 
a busy, enterprising, mining town. A United States mint is 
located here. 

The Grand Canon of the Colorado . “The head of the 
Grand Canon is in the northern part of Arizona, and it runs 
out in the northwestern part, lying wholly within that Terri- 
tory. Its general course is westerly, but it makes two great 
bends to the south. 

“It is two hundred and seventeen and a half miles long, and 
the walls vary in height from four thousand to six thousand 
two hundred and thirty-three feet. It is cut through a series 
of levels of varying altitudes, the chasm being deepest, of 
course, where it passes through the highest. There are in 
the canon no perpendicular cliffs more than three thousand 
feet in height. At that elevation from the river, the sides 
slope back, and rise by a series * of perpendicular cliffs and 
benches to the level of the surrounding country. In many places 
it is possible to find gorges or side canons, cutting down 
through the upper cliffs, by which it is possible, and in some 
instances easy, to approach to the edge of the wall which rises 
perpendicularly from the river. At three thousand feet above 
the river, the chasm is often but a few hundred feet wide. At 
the highest elevation mentioned, the distance across is gener- 
ally from five to ten miles.”* 

Arizona is a dry, barren country unfit for agriculture except 
where irrigation may be resorted to. Mining and grazing 
are the chief occupations of the people. 


♦“Picturesque America.” 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


176 

The Grand River rises in Middle Park, Colorado. Its 
principal tributary from the south is the Gunnison River. 

The Green River rises near Union Peak, in Western Wy- 
oming, and flows south through Eastern Utah to unite with 
the Grand in forming the Colorado. Its headwaters are close 
to those of the Yellowstone and Snake Rivers. 

The Walisatch Mountains cross Utah from northeast to 
southwest. They separate the basin of the Green River from 
Fremont’s Basin. 

Great Salt Lake is in the northern part of Utah, in the 
northeast cotrner of Fremont’s Basin. It is about 90 miles 
long, with a breadth varying from 20 to 35 miles. The surface 
is about 4,200 feet above the level of the sea. The lake has 
no outlet. 

Salt Lake City , the capital and chief city of Utah, is situ- 
ated near the east bank of Jordan River, about twelve miles 
southeast of the Great Salt Lake. It is a beautiful and pros- 
perous city, and shows the thrift and industry of its inhabitants, 
who are mostly Mormons. 

Utah has rich deposits of the precious metals, and its pros- 
perity must largely depend on the development of its mineral 
resources. 

Agriculture is successfully carried on in the valleys and 
plains, wherever they can be irrigated. 

California, the second State of the Union in size, is situated 
on the Pacific Ocean and extends through nine and a half de- 
grees of latitude. The climate is usually mild. The surface 
consists of a narrow strip of lowland along the coast, the Coast 
Range of mountains, a long valley extending nearly through- 
out the entire length of the State, and the Sierra Nevada 
Mountains on the east. 

Mining, agriculture, lumbering, and the herding of sheep 
and cattle are the chief pursuits. “California produces more 
gold and quicksilver than any other region in the world.” 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


177 


Notwithstanding this fact, its wheat and wool are of more 
value to the State than all its mineral porductions combined. 

The southern part of the State is famous for its oranges, 
figs, olives, and wines. 

San Diego , in the southwestern part of California, has an 
extensive trade in hides, whale oil, and wool. 

Los Angeles is situated on a river of the same name, about 
nine miles from the Pacific. The surrounding country is 
noted for the production of oranges, lemons, figs, and wine. 
Wine and wool are the principal exports. 

San Francisco , the chief city of California, and commercial 
metropolis of the Pacific coast, is at the north end of a penin- 
sula which is thirty miles long, and at the city, six miles wide, 
and separates San Francisco Bay from the Pacific Ocean. 
The city stands on the east, or inner, slope of the peninsula, 
and at the base of some high hills. The commerce of San 
Francisco is very great, the chief articles of export being the 
precious metals, grain, and wool. The manufactures are im- 
portant, including woolen and silk goods, watches, carriages, 
acids, castings of iron and brass, and silver-ware. 

San Francisco Fay is connected with the Ocean by a nar- 
row strait called the Golden Gate. 

Oakland , a beautiful city, is situated on the east side of San 
Francisco Bay, near the city of San Francisco. It is an im- 
portant manufacturing point. 

San yoaquin River rises in the southern part of California 
in Tulare Lake. Its waters are used a great deal for irrigat- 
ing purposes. 

Merced River , an eastern tributary of the San Joaquin, rise's 
among the Sierra Nevada Mountains, and flows through the 

famous Yosemite Valley which lies among the Sierras, nearly 
in the center of the State, from north to south, and a hundred 
and fifty miles almost due east from San Francisco. The 
usual route to the Valley leads through the “big trees of Mar- 
iposa.” 


178 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


Sacramento City , the capital of California, is situated on the 
east bank of the Sacramento River, at the mouth of the Amer- 
ican Fork. The city possesses a large commerce, being at the 
head of navigation for large steamboats, and accessible for 
steamers and sailing vessels at all seasons of the year. It is 
the distributing point of supplies to the mining regions of 
Northern California. 

Mt. Shasta , 14,442 feet in height, is at the north end of the 
Sacramento Valley 

“The greater part of the farming land of California lies in 
the two large valleys of the Sacramento and the San Joaquin.” 

Columbia River , the largest American river that enters the 
Pacific Ocean, rises in British Columbia, flows south to the 
northern boundary of Oregon, thence west to the Pacific, 
forming the boundary nearly throughout between Oregon 
and Washington Territoy. The navigation of the river is ob- 
structed by the Cascades and Dalles. The Columbia is fam- 
ous for its salmon fisheries. 

Portland, the most populous city of Oregon, is on the west 
bank of the Willamette River, twelve miles from the Colum- 
bia. 

Salem , the capital of Oregon, is situated on the right bank 
of the Willamette River. 

The Willamette Valley is the garden of Oregon. 

Walla Walla is situated on a river of the same name, in the 
southeastern part of Washington Territory. 

Snake , or Lewis River , the principal tributary of the Co- 
lumbia, rises at Union Peak, near the headwaters of the Green 
and Yellowstone Rivers, and flows west and north, joining the 
Columbia in southeastern Washington. 

Boise City , the capital of Idaho, is situated on Boise River, 
a tributary of the Snake. 

Idaho Territory is rapidly developing as a mining and graz- 
ing country. Some valuable gold mines have recently been 
discovered among the Cour d’Alene Mountains. 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


179 


The Strait of Juan de Fuca separates Vancouver’s Island 
from Washington Territory. 

Olympia , the capital of Washington Territory, is situated 
at the head of Puget Sound. It is a city of grand possibili- 
ties. 

Sketch the Pacific Slope. 

Alaska is situated in the northwestern corner of North 
America, and is separated from the rest of the United States 
by British America. 

The climate is too cold to admit of profitable farming, or 
even cattle raising. The southern part of the Territory has 
some extensive forests, but the northern part is destitute of 
trees. 

“To an impartial observer it would seem wicked to suggest 
emigration from any part of the United States to a land, the 
coast lines of which are characterized by snow, rain, and fog 
to such an extent as to almost entirely preclude the ripening 
of any sort of vegetables suitable for man’s food, and the in- 
terior of which, so far as known, is largely composed of ice- 
water bogs in summer, and* frozen lakes for eight out of the 
twelve months in the year. Plainly, so far as I could see or 
hear, Alaska is as illy adapted to grazing as to farming pur- 
poses. The climate is against either of those industries, and 
though the possibility of a family’s existence by farming or 
cattle raising in Alaska is not denied, its practicability is 
doubted.”* 

The Territory is valuable mainly for the variety and abun- 
dance of costly furs, which it furnishes to the world, and for 
its salmon fisheries. Its area is about 580,000 square miles. 

There are but few white people in Alaska, the most of the 
inhabitants being Esquimaux and Indians. 

Yukon , the chief river of Alaska, rises in British America 
and flows into Behring Sea. It is estimated to be 2000 miles 


*“A Trip to Alaska”— Boardman, 


i8o 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY 


in length, and equal to the Mississippi in width. At present 
there is nothing tributary to it that is capable of creating a com- 
merce. “Two stern-wheel steamers appear to be capable of 
satisfying the want of commerce upon the Yukon at present 
and for a long time to come.” 

Sitka , formerly the capital of Alaska, is situated on an 
island off the west coast. Population 500. 

Fort Wrangell , a military post of Alaska, is situated on 
Wrangell Island, about 150 miles southeast of Sitka. It con- 
tains the most white inhabitants of any town in the Territory. 







CHAPTER IX. 


MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES, AND THE 

BERMUDAS. 

Mexicn. — 

Contains an area of 763,804 square miles, and a population 
of 9,577,279. Of this population 5,000,000 are Indians, and 
about 1,000,000 are native whites, chiefly of Spanish descent. 
The remainder are mixed races, except about 50,000 Europe* 
ans, mostly Spaniards. 

The surface consists of a great table-land, bordered by nar- 
row strips of lowlands on the Pacific and Gulf coasts. The 
elevation of this table-land gradually increases from the north- 
ern boundary to about the latitude of Vera Cruz, where it reach- 
es the altitude of 8,000 feet, and is crowned by a number of vol- 
canic peaks which reach above the snow line, of these, Popo- 
catepetl, 17,853 feet, is the highest. From here, the elevation 
gradually diminishes towards the south. 

Owing to the nearness of the plateau to the coasts, the rivers 
of Mexico are little more than mountain torrents rushing im- 
petuously from terrace to terrace on their way to the sea. 
They are available for navigation only for short distances in 
their lower reaches, where they flow through the narrow 
strips of level coast lands. The lakes are all small. Lake 
Chapala, the largest, is about one-fourth as large as Lake On- 
tario. 

The climate of Mexico is affected far more by the relief of 
the land than by its distance from the equator. F rom the 
level of the sea up to about 3,000 feet, the climate is hot, and 
very unhealthy in the south. “ Yellow fever and black vomit 
are here endemic.” From 3,000 up to 8,000 feet, the climate is 

(i8i) 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


182 

temperate, and one of the very finest in the world. From 
8,000 feet upwards, the climate is cold, and the rainfall slight. 

In the “hot lands” are extensive virgin forests abounding in 
valuable timbers, dyewoods, and medicinal and other useful 
plants. Amongst the most important of these forest plants 
are rosewood, mahogany, caoutchouc, copal, jalap, sarsaparilla, 
and vanilla. The cultivated crops are maize, rice, indigo, cot- 
ton, tobacco, coffee, sugar, cocoa, and bananas. 

The principal forest trees of the “temperate lands” are the 
evergreen, oak, and cedars; a great variety of cacti is found on 
the plateau, some of them reaching a height of twenty feet. 
The chief crops are maize, wheat, tobacco, coffee, olives, man- 
go, and the vine. 

The characteristic plant of the “cold lands” is maguey, 
whose fruit is edible, and whose fermented juice, the famous 
pulque, is the national drink of the Mexicans. 

Mexico is very rich in mines of silver, gold, copper, iron, tin, 
and sulphur. 

The principal manufactures are sugar, rum, wine and bran- 
dy, earthen and stone ware, paper and olive oil. 

Mexico is a Federal Republic, comprising twenty-seven 
States, one Territory, and a Federal District. For a table of 
these see Encyclopedia Britannica. 

The President, Senate, and the Supreme Judiciary, are 
chosen by popular suffrage, for four years, and the lowei house 
for two years. The Chief Justice is ex-officio Vice President. 
The constitution comprises three departments — legislative, exe- 
cutive, and judicial. Each State is represented in the House of 
Representatives, in the proportion of one member for every 
So, 000 inhabitants, and in the Senate by two members elected 
by the legislature. 

The Spanish is the legal language, and the vernacular of 
the most of the people. 

Matamoras , a well-built town of northeastern Mexico, is on 
the right bank of the Rio Grande, forty miles from the Gulf 
of Mexico. It is of historical importance. 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


183 


Vera Cruz , the principal seaport of Mexico, is situated on 
the Gulf of Mexico. Its trade is equal to that of all other 
Mexican ports combined. The principal exports are bullion, 
sugar, coffee, cochineal, indigo, logwood, flour, and drugs. 

Bay of Campeachy , the southern arm of the Gulf of Mex- 
ico. 

The Gulf of Tehuantepec , an arm of the Pacific Ocean, is 
situated south of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. There has 
been some talk of connecting these two gulfs by a ship rail- 
road. 

Acapulco, noted for its shipments of fruits, is on the south- 
western coast of Mexico. 

Cape Corrientes . 

Guay mas, the western terminus of the Atchison, Topeka, 
and Santa Fe Railroad system, is situated in Northwestern 
Mexico, on the Gulf of California. 

Cape San Lucas , the southern extremity of Lower Cali- 
fornia. 

Mexico , the capital of the Republic of Mexico, is situated 
in a beautiful valley, at an elevation of 7,524 feet above sea 
level. It is the largest and finest city of Spanish America. 
Most of the inhabitants are pure-blood Indians or Mestizoes. 
The cathedral of Mexico “is the largest and most sumptuous 
church in America.” Population 241,110. 

Puebla , noted for its large number of richly-decorated re- 
ligious edifices, is situated on the great table-land, southeast 
of the City of Mexico. 

Sketch Mexico. 

Central iLm.Eri.ca. — Consists of five independent Re- 
publics, and a British Colony. 

The surface consists of a plateau, bordered on the east and 
west by narrow strips of lowland. On the western edge of 
the plateau is a range of mountains, which has an average 
elevation of from 3,000 to 5,000 feet, and contains several ac- 


184 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


tive volcanoes double that height. From these mountains the 
plateau descends by terraces towards the Caribbean Sea. 

The mineral wealth of the country is not much developed. 

There are no rivers or lakes of importance, except Lake 
Nicaragua, and its outlet, the San Juan River. Both the lake 
and the river are of importance in connection with the inter- 
oceanic canal which, at some time in the near future, may be 
built through here. 

Much of the country is covered with dense forests. Among 
the most valuable trees are mahogany aud caoutchouc. 

The climate is hot and moist in the lowlands, but in the in- 
terior it is more agreeable. 

The principal crops are coffee, sugar, tobacco, and indigo. 

The inhabitants are mostly Indians or mixed races. The 
whites are of Spanish descent, and their language is the legal 
one. 


Countries : 
Guatemala, 
Honduras, 

San Salvador, 
Nicaragua, 
Costa Rica, 


Capitals : 

New Guatemala, 
Tegucigalpa, 

San Salvador, 
Managua, 

San Jose, 


Balize, (a British Colony,) Balize. 


The "ffiZ~ESt Indies. — The West Indies consist of three 
principal groups; the Greater Antilles, the Lesser Antilles, 
and the Bahamas. 

The Greater Antilles comprise Cuba, Jamaica, Hayti, Porto 
Rico, and several small islands near their coasts. 

Each of the larger islands is crossed in the direction of its 
length, by mountain ranges which vary in height from 2,000 
to 8,000 feet. 

Cuba , “the gem of the Antilles,” is a long, narrow island 
containing 43,319 square miles, with a population of about 
1,500,000. It is one of the great sugar fields of the world, and 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


185 


in addition produces large crops of coffee, tobacco, oranges, 
lemons, pine-apples, and bananas. 

The island belongs to Spain. 

Havana , the capital, is near the west end of the island. It 
is a very important commecial city. The chief exports are 
sugar, cigars, molasses, oranges, and lemons. 

Jamaica belongs to Great Britain. Its products, as well as 
those of the other islands of the group, are about the same as 
those of Cuba. 

Kingston is the capital. 

The Island of Hayti is next in size to Cuba. The western 
part of the island is occupied by the Republic of Hayti. Its 
inhabitants are mostly free blacks. 

The capital is Port-au-Prince . 

On the east end of the island is the Republic of Santo Do- 
mingo. The capital is San Domingo . 

Porto Rico, “rich port,” lies east of Hayti, and belongs to 
Spain. San Juan is the capital. 

Phe Lesser Antilles are arranged in the form of a curve, 
from Porto Rico to South America, separating the Caribbean 
Sea from the Atlantic Ocean. 

They are frequently subdivided into smaller groups, which 
it is not advisable to dwell upon here. They are owned 
mainly by Great Britain and France. 

The Bahamas belong to Great Britain, and are situated east 
of the south end of Florida. They are generally low, long, 
and narrow. About twenty-five of the islands are inhabited, 
and produce cotton, maize, oranges, limes, and lemons. The 
principal exports are sponges, cabinet- woods, fruit, shells, and 
arrowroot. 

Nassau , the capital of the Bahamas, is situated on tne island 
of New Providence. Its harbor was a famous rendezvous for 
blockade-runners during the Civil War in the United States. 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


1 86 

The Bermudas — Are a group of small islands which 
belong to Great Britain, situated 560 miles southeast of Cape 
Hatteras. They are surrounded on three sides by coral reefs, 
which extend, in some parts, ten miles from the islands. “The 
climate is delightful, an uninterrupted spring clothing the 
fields and trees with perpetual verdure.” The chief exports 
are arrowroot, potatoes, tomatoes, and onions, shipped exten- 
sively to the United States. 



CHAPTER X. 


SOUTH AMERICA. 

South America, the fourth of the continents in size, is south- 
east of North America, which it resembles in form. Both 
are triangular, widest at the north and narrowing gradually 
toward the south. Its coast line is much more regular than 
that of the northern continent, and there are but very few 
good harbors. 

The principal mountain system of each is next to the Pa- 
cific, the second in importance is close to the Atlantic, and the 
third is par allel to the northern coast. 

The Andes Mountains, which may be regarded as a contin- 
uation of the Rocky Mountains, extend from the Isthmus to 
Cape Horn. They generally consist of two parallel ranges, 
but in some places there are three or more. These ranges are 
connected by numerous cross ranges, and enclose several 
large plateaus, the largest of which is the Plateau of Titicaca, 
lying partly in Bolivia and partly in Peru; itis about 300 miles 
long, and 100 miles wide. The Andes far exceed the “Rock- 
ies” in height, and contain many active volcanoes. The 
highest peak is Nevado de Sorata (25,000), in Bolivia. 

The Espinhaco and Organ Mountains are on the eastern 
edge of the great plateau of Brazil, and prevent the rivers of 

that country from going directly to the Atlantic. 

* 

The Mountains of Guiana form the water-shed between the 
basins of the Amazon and Orinoco, and are less extensive than 
either of the other systems. 

The great plain of South America reaches from the northern 
border of the continent to the southern extremity, and 

(1S7) 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


1 88 

is drained by three of the greatest rivers of the world. 
Professor Guyot has called attention to the fact, that in the 
New World the mountains are situated on the margins of the 
continents, and the plains in the interior, while in the Old 
World the mountains are in the interior and the plains along 
the margins. Let the pupils determine the truthfulness of this 
statement as to each continent. 

Since the most of South America is situated in the torrid 
zone, its climate if dependent on latitude alone, would be very 
hot. Butin this instance, as is frequently the case, the altitude 
of a place influences its temperature more than does distance 
from the equator. F rom the level of the sea up to an elevation of 
2,000 feet, the climate is tropical, and where there is sufficient mois- 
ture, the vegetation is dense and rank. From 2,000 to 11,000 
feet, the climate is temperate, and the vegetation moderate 
From 1 1,000 feet to the snow line is the cold region, and mosses 
and lichens are the prevailing plants. The altitude of the snow 
line, in any latitude, depends somewhat on the width and eleva- 
tion of the plateau on which the mountains rest. The higher 
and wider the plateau, the higher will be the snow line. The 
altitude of the snow line in equatorial America is about 15,- 
000 feet. 

The principal trees of tropical America, are the mahogany, 
rosewood, palm, India-rubber tree, cinchona (from whose bark 
quinine is made), and cow-tree. Vanilla, sarsaparilla, and ip- 
ecacuanha, are also products of the lowlands. The principal 
cultivated crops are coffee, sugar, cotton, cocoa, rice, maize, 
yams, mandioca (from which tapioca is made), and tobacco. 
The fruits are the orange, pear, pineapple, banana, etc. 

The chief crops of the temperate region are such as are cul- 
tivated in the United States, with the addition of some fruits 
that are not grown in the latter country. 

The mountains and plateaus of South America are rich in 
silver, gold, copper, quicksilver and other metals. But the 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY 189 

want of good roads renders the mines almost valueless, as the 
cost of transporting the ore to the coast, or machinery to the 
mines, is so great that mining is almost a profitless labor. The 
same cause hinders the advancement of agriculture, which at 
present is carried on in a very primitive manner. And there 
can be little hope of progress until the interior of the continent 
is made accessible to the outside world, by means of the loco- 
motive and steamboat. 

What has been said above about the climate, natural pro- 
ductions, and cultivated crops is applicable to all of the coun- 
tries of South America, with the exception of Chili, Argentine 
Republic, and Uruguay, hence they need not he treated in de- 
tail. But the countries named are situated in the south tem- 
perate zone, consequently their climate and productions vary 
somewhat from those of the others, and will receive attention 
in due time. 

All of the countries of South America, except, Brazil and 
the Guianas are Republics, modeled after the Government of 
the United States. Brazil is an Empire and the Guianas are 
European Colonies. 

The United States of Colombia is situated in the northwest- 
ern corner of South America. The most of the country slopes 
towards the Caribbean Sea. The white inhabitants are of 
Spanish descent and speak the Spanish language. 

Aspinwall , or Colon , is a seaport on the Atlantic side of 
the Isthmus of Panama. 

Panama is on the Pacific side of the isthmus and is con- 
nected with Aspinwall by a railroad forty-seven miles in 
length. A canal is now being constructed between the two 
cities, and when completed, it will be of great importance to 
the commerce of the world. Why? Describe a voyage 

from New York City to San Francisco now; when the canal 
is completed. 

Cartagena , a port on the Caribbean Sea, is an exceedingly 
hot and unhealthy city. Yellow fever is endemic and often 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


190 

makes fearful ravages; leprosy is common. The city exports 
cotton, sugar, balsams, cinchona, coffee, and vegetable ivory. 

Magdalena, the principal river, flows north into the Car- 
ibbean Sea. 

Bogota , the capital, is on a high table-land, east of the 
Magdalena River. The city being subject to earthquakes the 
houses are low and built of sun-dried brick. It has a delight- 
ful climate, resembling perpetual autumn. 

Cape Gallinas. the northern point of South America. 

E Cliadnr is situated south of the United States of Colombia. 
Its surface may be divided into three parts — the lowlands be- 
tween the Pacific and the mountains, the mountains and pla- 
teaus in the center, and the lowlands east of the mountains. 
The two principal ranges of mountains are here quite close 
together, making the interior table-land somewhat narrow. 
The whiles are of Spanish descent, and Spanish is the legal 
language. 

Quito, the capital, is on a plateau, in the interior. Notwith- 
standing its position almost on the equator, Quito has a delight- 
ful climate, resembling that of perpetual spring. And, yet, 
eleven snow-capped mountains are in view from the city. 
The constant dread of earthquakes is the only serious draw- 
back to the enjoyment. 

Guayaquil, the principal seaport, is situated on the Gulf of 
Guayaquil. It exports coffee, cotton, tobacco, Panama hats, 
hides, and several kinds of barks. 

Psm is in the western part of the continent. Its surface 
embraces the lowlands along the Pacific, the mountainous re- 
gion in the interior, and the lowlands east of the mountains. 
Peru has very rich deposits of the precious metals, but its chief 
source of wealth is the guano found on the Chincha Islands, 
near the mainland. The rainfall west of the mountains is very 
slight, but on the east side it is very great. [Why this differ- 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


191 

ence?] The Table-land of Cuzco was the center of the civil- 
ization, power, and wealth of the ancient empire of the Incas. 

Cape Parhia , the western point. 

L ima , the capital, is situated on the Rimac River, seven 
miles from its entrance into the Pacific. The city has consid- 
erable commerce through the port of Callao. Population 
101,500. 

Bolivia. — The surface of Bolivia may be divided into two 
divisions — the mountains and plateaus in the west, and the 
low, fertile plain on the east. Bolivia formerly bordered on 
the Pacific for nearly 300 miles. But at the close of the war 
waged recently by it and Peru against Chili, the latter coun- 
try annexed Western Bolivia and the southern part of West- 
ern Peru to its own possessions, and Bolivia is now an inland 
country. The most of the inhabitants are Indians and mixed 
races, but the ruling power is in the hands of the whites, who 
are of Spanish descent. 

Lake Titicaca , next to the largest lake of South Americans 
situated on the boundary between Bolivia and Peru, at an ele- 
vation of 12,900 feet, being one .of the highest lakes in the 
world. It was on an island in this lake that Manco Capac, the 
first Inca of the old Peruvians, miraculously appeared. 

La Paz , the capital, is about forty miles east of Lake Titi. 
caca, with which it is connected by railroad. The city is the 
center of the Bolivian trade in cinchona. 

Chili lies west of the Andes Mountains, and extends from 
Cape Horn to about the parallel of La Paz, Bolivia. The 
northern part of the country comprises the desert of Atacama, 
on which no rain ever falls. This region is rich in silver, cop- 
per, quicksilver, etc., and is occupied by persons connected 
with the mines. Water for mining purposes and for the in- 
habitants, is conducted from the mountains by means of aque- 
ducts. 


192 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


The central part of the country has a mild, and moist cli- 
mate, and abounds in forests of laurel, myrtle, and cypress. 
The principal crops are wheat, oats, hemp, potatoes, and fruits. 
Immense herds of cattle find pasturage on the upland. They 
are kept chiefly for their hides and tallow. 

The southern part of the country consists of West Pata- 
gonia. The climate is wet, cold, and disagreeable. The 
country is covered with dense forests, and has but very few 
white inhabitants. 

Sa?itiago , the capital, is situated on a fertile plain at the 
foot of the Andes. The streets intersect each other at right 
angles, but, owing to the pravalence of earthquakes, the houses 
are rarely more than one story high. Each house is general- 
ly built in the form of a square, with an open space or court in 
the center. Two lines of railroad enter the city, and it is well 
supplied with street-railways. Population 150,000. 

Valparaiso , “the vale of paradise,” is the principal seaport 
on the west coast of South America. “The town is well lit 
with gas, is well paved, and has steam fire-engines and street- 
railways, and a public library.” The English language is con- 
sidered an essential branch of education, and is freely taught in 
the schools. 

F at a g Dili a is a cold, dreary region. The portion west of 
the Andes belongs to Chili. Rain falls almost incessantly, and 
the country is covered with dense forests. 

The part of Patagonia which lies east of the Andes, is main- 
ly a desert. No rain falls on the southern half of it, but the 
northern half has occasional showers. The country is claimed 
by the Argentine Republic. Nearly all of the inhabitants are 
uncivilized Indians who obtain a livelihood by hunting what 
few animals are found in the country, and stealing from the 
whites on the northern frontier. 

The Strait of Magellan separates the island of Terra del 
Fuega from Patagonia. 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY: 


193 


Terra del Fuego is a bleak, barren country, inhabited by 
degraded savages, whose only aim and ambition in life is to 
obtain food enough to keep them from starving. 

Cape Horn, the southern extremity of South Americans on 
a small island, south of Terra del Fuego. 

Sketch the west coast of South America, and show the posi- 
tion of the cities studied. 

The Falkland Islands are situated in the South Atlantic, 
east of the Strait of Magellan. The group consists of about 
two hundred, and constitutes a British Colony. The islands 
are entirely destitute of trees, but they are covered with a 
variety of flowers in November and December. 

“The rearing of cattle and sheep is the principal industry, 
and hides and wool are the staple exports.” 

The people are of British and Spanish- American descent. 

The iirgEntine Republic is situated in the south tem- 
perate zone. The surface is level, except in the western part, 
which is occupied by branches of the Andes. The great, 
treeless plains of the interior are called Pampas. They sup- 
port immense herds of cattle and horses, which are the chief 
source of wealth to the inhabitants. 

The eastern provinces are well supplied with forests of val- 
uable trees. 

The principal crops are cotton, sugar, tobacco, rice, wheat) 
peaches, and grapes. But agriculture is so generally neglect- 
ed, that the productions are scarcely sufficient for home use. 

Rio de la Plata , the second river of South America in size 
and importance, is formed by the union of Parana and Uru- 
guay Rivers. It is 170 miles wide at its entrance into the At- 
lantic, and 30 miles at Buenos Ayres, and its tributaries drain 
nearly all of the Argentine Republic, Paraguay, and Uruguay. 

Buenos Ayres , the capital, is on the right bank of the La 
Plata, about 150 miles from the Atlantic. The streets inter- 
sect each other at right angles, and many of them have street- 


*94 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY, 


railways. The most of the houses are built of brick and 
whitewashed. The city has an extensive commerce, but its 
prosperity is impeded by the want of a good harbor. The 
river is so shallow that large vessels cannot come nearer than 
five or six miles to the city. The chief exports are hides, 
horns, tallow, bones, hair, ostrich feathers, wool and live stock. 

Paraguay i — The small, inland country of Paraguay is 
situated between the Parana and Paraguay Rivers. Its prin- 
cipal productions are about the same as those of the Argentine 
Republic. 

Assumption, the capital, is situated on the east bank of the 
Paraguay River, opposite the mouth of the Pilcomayo River. 
It has considerable trade in Paraguay tea, tobacco, and hides. 

Sucre , the former capital of Bolivia, is situated on a plateau, 
near the headwaters of the Pilcomayo. 

Sketch the Rio de la Plata and its tributaries. 

Uraguay is the the smallest of the South American Repub- 
lics; it consists mostly of grassy plains, with a few low ridges of 
mountains in the interior. But little attention is given to ag- 
riculture, cattle and horses being the chief sources of wealth to 
the people. 

Montevideo , the capital, is on the left bank of the Rio de la 
Plata. It has considerable commerce. 

TllE Empire nf Brazil is the largest country of South 
America. It contains an area about equal to that of the 
United States, exclusive of Alaska, and a population about 
one-fifth as great. 

The surface consists of a great plateau traversed by numer- 
ous ranges of mountains, and surrounded on three sides by 
lowlands. 

The basin of the Amazon is valuable mainly for the natural 
production of its forests. Mahogany, rosewood, India-rubber 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


195 


tree, Brazil-wood, cocoa-nut palm, sarsaparilla, copal, ipecacu- 
anha, and vanilla are among the principal products. 

From Bahia to the Bay of Paranagua, the principal crop 
is coffee. Brazil produces the most coffee of any country in 
the world. 

From the Bay of Paranagua to the southern limit of the 
empire, and on the higher plateaus of the interior, the princi- 
pal products are such as are common to all temperate regions. 

Cotton, tobacco, rice and sugar bind together these three 
zones, being cultivated in all of them. 

The white inhabitants are of Portuguese descent, and Portu- 
guese is the legal language of the country. 

Slavery exists in Brazil, but steps have been taken, looking 
to its extinction. 

Rio Janeiro , the capital, and the most populous city of 
South America, is situated on Rio Janeiro Bay. This bay ri- 
vals the Bay of Naples in beauty and sublimity. It is about 
seventeen miles in length and eleven miles in width, and is en- 
tered by a strait, less than two miles wide. The many islands 
which dot its bosom and the lofty mountains which stand 
guard upon its margin are all covered with tropical verdure. 

Rio Janeiro is the chief commercial city of South America, 
and is connected by regular lines of steamers with the leading- 
maritime nations of Europe, and with several of the principal 
ports of North America. Its chief exports are coffee, cotton, 
sugar, rum, building timber, leather, tallowy gold, and dia- 
monds. Population 229,000. 

Cafe Frio . 

Bahia , an important seaport, is on the east side of the Bay 
of All Saints. Its exports are about the same as those of Rio 
Janeiro. “Bahia exceeds every other city in the empire in the 
number of its churches, monasteries, and convents.” 

San Francisco , an important river of Eastern Brazil, flows 
into the Atlantic Ocean. Near its headwaters are the richest 
diamond mines of the empire. 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


196 

Cape St. Roque is the eastern point of South America. 

The A?nazon River rises in the central part of Peru and 
flows northwest for several hundred miles, when it heads to 
the northeast, and, on reaching the frontiers of Ecuador, turns 
almost due east, forming the boundary between Ecuador and 
Peru, and reaching the Atlantic on the Equator. It is 3,600 
miles long, and is 50 miles wide just above the island of Joan- 
nes, or Marajo. u The volume and impetus of the river is so 
great that it carries its fresh water unmixed into the sea a dis- 
tance of 200 miles.” The basin of the Amazon embraces 
more than one-third of the continent, and is covered with 
magnificent forests, in which are found many valuable plants 
and trees. The wooded plains of the Amazon are frequent- 
ly termed Selvas . 

Para , the commercial emporium of the Amazon valley, is 
situated on the south bank of the Para River, about seventv 
miles from the Atlantic. Its commerce is very extensive, the 
chief exports being cotton, coffee, tobacco, vanilla, dye-woods, 
and wax. The Para River is twenty miles wide at this point. 
The island of Joannes, or Marajo, is situated between the 
Amazon and Para Rivers. 

The principal southern tributaries of the Amazon are the 
Xingu, Tapajos, Madeira, and Ucayali (which is con- 
sidered by many as the true Amazon). The more important 
northern tributaries are the Rio Negro, Yapura, and Napo. 

Sketch the Amazon and its tributaries. 

F rench Guiana belongs to France, and is used by that nation 
as a place of banishment for political offenders. The climate 
is very hot and unhealthy. 

Cayenne , the capital is on an island near the coast. 

Dutch Guiana is an important Dutch Colony. The most of 
the inhabitants are negroes and mixed races. Dutch is the 
legal language of the Colony, and Dutch laws and customs 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


197 


Para?naribo , the capital, is on the Surinam River. It has 
considerable commerce. 

British Guiana is the largest and most important of the 
Guianas, and belongs to Great Britain. The principal pro- 
ducts are about the same as those of the other Guianas, and con- 
sist of rice, sugar, maize, vanilla, tobacco, cinnamon, and 
chocolate. 

Georgetown , the capital, is situated on the coast. The city 
is an important commercial center. Most of the streets have 
canals running through them. 

The Republic of Venezuela is in the northern part of South 
America, and borders on both the Caribbean Sea and the At- 
lantic Ocean. 

The surface consists of a narrow strip of lowland on the 
north, a mountainous region in the center, and the valley of 
the Orinoco to the south. 

The climate and crops resemble those of the other Andean 
countries of South America. 

Orinoco , the third river of South America in size, is almost 
entirely in Venezuela. It has navigable connection with the 
Rio Negro, by means of the Cassiquiare River. The low 
plains along the Orinoco are known as the Llanos . In the 
rainy season, the Llanos are covered with water and the Orin- 
oco presents the appearance of a great inland sea on its way to 
to the ocean. In the dry season they are covered with mov- 
ing hills of sand and dust. Sketch the Orinoco. 

Caracas , the capital, is built on a plateau, about twelve 
miles from the coast. Its commerce is through the port of 
La Guayra. 

Maracaybo , the largest lake of South America, is situated in 
the northern part of Venezuela and is sometimes called a gulf. 
It is connected with the Caribbean Sea by the Strait of Mara- 
caybo, a channel 45 miles long and from 4 to 14 miles wide. 

Sketch South America, showing its mountains, principal 
rivers, and cities. 


CHAPTER XI. 


GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 

The British Isles consist of the Islands of Great Britain and 
Ireland with a few smaller ones near their coasts. On the Island 
of Great Britain are situated England, Scotland, and Wales. 

In teaching the geography of the British Isles, follow the 
general plan you have adopted of teaching first the contour or 
outline of the country, next its relief or surface, and after- 
wards its political geography. 

To Americans, Great Britain is next in importance to their 
own country, hence its geography should be studied with con- 
siderable care and fullness, but too much should not be at- 
tempted. If, in your judgment, too many places are here sug- 
gested, leave out some of them, and give only such, and as 
many, as the grade of your pupils will justify you in giving. 

Great Britain. 

Shetland Islands , a group of small island northeast of Scot- 
land. “Shetland ponies.” 

Orkney Islands , separated from Scotland by Pentland 
Firth. 

Duncansby Head , the northeast point of Scotland. Near 
here was “ John O’Groat’s House.” [See “Noted Names of 
Fiction,” Webster’s Unabridged Dictionary.] 

In sailing south along the east coast of Great Britain, notice 
the following points: 

Moray Firth , from the head of which the Caledonian canal 
extends southwest to the Atlantic Ocean. Length of canal, 
60 miles, 38 of which are through Lochs. This canal, because 
of its being on different levels, has several Locks, 

(198) 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


199 


“A lock is a curious way of making boats climb up hills, for 
canals must sometimes be made on ground that is high in 
one part and low in another. Where a high and low level 
meet it is necessary to build what is called a lock. This 
is a shaft or well-hole of stone, carefully laid in cement so as 
to be water-tight, extending down from the upper to the 
lower level of the canal, with a gate on one side, at the bot- 
tom, opening into the lower level, and another on the oppo- 
site side at the top, opening into the upper level. These 
gates or doors can be shut so as to be water-tight. When 
a boat is to go up hill, the door at the top being closed, 
the one at the bottom is opened, and the boat floats 
through into the lock. The door is then closed and the 
upper one is gradually opened, letting the water run down 
into the lock until the water in the lock is on a level with that 
in the upper canal. The upper door or gate is then opened, 
and the boat floats out upon the upper level. There are so 
many of these locks in some localities that they resemble a 
flight of stairs I — MonteitPs Popular Science . 

Inverness , the largest city in the Highlands. Four miles 
northeast of it is the battle field of Culloden. 

Aberdeen , an important commercial city, noted for its docks 
and ship yards. 

Grampian Hills , a range of mountains extending northeast • 
and southwest through Scotland, and forming the boundary 
between the Highlands on the north, and the Lowlands on 
the south. 

Dundee , a very important city of Scotland, is situated on 
the Firth of Tay about midway between Aberdeen and the 
Tweed River. It manufactures the most linen, hemp, and 
jute, of any city on the Island of Great Britain. 

Firth of Pay . 

Perth , formerly the metropolis of Scotland and the scene of 
many important historical events. 

Firth of Forth . 


200 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


Edinburgh , the capital of Scotland and one of the most 
beautiful cities of Europe, is two miles south of the Firth of 
Forth; its sea-port is Leith, a city of 50,000 inhabitants. Ed- 
inburgh is built upon a series of hills, giving it an undulating 
appearance. The houses rise range above range on the steep 
sides of these hills. A person can stand on one street and look 
down, perpendicularly, upon the roof of houses on the streets 
below, which are six and seven stories in height. The Castle 
crowns the highest hill, and near it is Holy rood Palace, for- 
merly the abode of royalty. 

Among the many objects of interest to tourists, are the 
Scott Monument, the Castle, Grassmarket Square, the Parlia- 
ment House, and Holyrood Palace. Population, 225,000. 

Forth River , rises on the side of Ben Lomond, and flows 
east into the Firth of Forth. 

Stirling , a city of historical importance on the Forth 
River. 

Bannockburn , a famous battlefield two and a half miles 
south of Sterling. Here the Scots under Robert Bruce gained 
a great victory over the English, in 1314. 

Ascending the Forth River from Stirling, we soon come to 
the Teith River flowing in from the northwest. If we ascend 
the Teith we shall come to a chain of lakes famous for their 
scenery. The first is Loch Vennachar, in which the river 
rises, the next is Loch Achray, and the third is Loch 
Katrine, immortalized by Sir Walter Scott in his “Lady of the 
Lake.” 

Why not devote one recitation period, at least, to a study of 
the scene of this poem? Before beginning the exercise, place 
on the blackboard a sketch showing the three lakes, and Ben 
Venue, Ellen's Isle, the Trossachs, and Coilantogle Ford. Mark 
the passages of the poem, which you wish to have read, and 
let some member of the class do the reading. As the refer- 
ences to the places on the sketch are reached, let them be 
pointed out, and their names written by them. 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


201 


Such an exercise would be profitable, not only in vitalizing 
the study of geography, and imbuing it with sunshine, but also 
in creating a taste for good, pure literature, which is one of the 
great needs of our time. 

The Tweed River forms the boundary, in part, between 
Scotland and England. On this river is Abbotsford, which 
was the home of Sir Walter Scott. 

Cheviot Hills , partly on the boundary between Scotland 
and England. 

Before proceeding farther, the pupils should sketch the east 
coast of Scotland. The value of this work will depend largely 
on the faithfulness with which the sketching is done. Hence, 
all should sketch, either on the blackboard or on paper. 

In the northeast corner of England is Flodden, made famous 
by Scott in his “Marmion.” 

Newcastle, or ]S 1 ewcastle-ufon-Tyne, an important city sit- 
uated on the Tyne River, eight miles from its mouth. It is the 
center of the great northern coal-fields, “which employ about 
50,000 men and boys on land, and some 72,000 in the coasting 
carrriage, apart from the numbers engaged in the long sea coal 
trade.” Iron ship-building is next to coal-mining, the most im- 
portant industry in Newcastle; but it is extensively engaged in 
the manufacture of iron ware of all sorts. 

Pennine , a range of mountains extending south from the 
Cheviot Hills, through the center of England. 

Hull , or, King ston-ufion- Hull , the third port in England, 
is situated at the junction of the Hull River with the Plumber 

Humber , an estuary, formed by the Ouse and Trent Rivers, 
and two or three smaller streams. 

Tork,on the Ouse River, has considerable commerce and 
manufactures, and is noted for its beautiful cathedral. 

Leeds , a city southwest of York, is noted for the manufac- 
ture of woolen goods. 

Sheffield , a city south of York, on the Don River, is noted 
for the manufacture of cutlery. 


202 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


Nottingham , an important city situated near the Trent 
R iver. It is especially noted for the manufacture of hosiery 
and lace, in which employment 200,000 persons are engaged, 
in the city and surrounding country. 

Eight and a half miles northwest of Nottingham is Newstead 
Abbey, the home of Byron. 

Birmingham , the fourth city of England in population, is 
situated on a tributary of the Trent. Its manufactures com- 
prise all kinds of iron, steel, and brass goods. It is especially 
noted for the manufacture of fire-arms. 

“About 20,000,000 steel pens are made weekly in the town.” 
The Wash. 

Lincoln , an important city situated north of the Wash, 

Great Ouse . 

Cambridge , the seat of a famous university, is situated on 
the Cam River, a branch of the Great Ouse. The university 
consists of seventeen colleges and halls. 

Bedford , a city on the Great Ouse, is famous for the impris- 
onment of John Bunyan. He wrote “Pilgrim’s Progress” 
while imprisoned here. 

Yarmouth , the most eastern town in England, is at the 
mouth of the Yare River. It is the seat of the English her- 
ring-fishery. 

Thames , the most important river of England, is formed by 
the junction of the Isis and Cherwell. “Its basin, compared 
with that of the Amazon, is insignificant in size, yet it contains 
a population more than fifteen times that of the basin of the 
Amazon.” 

Greenwich , a city on the right bank of the Thames, four 
miles down the river from London. It is from the Royal 
Observatory situated here that longitude is reckoned. 

London , the capital of the British Empire and the largest 
city in the world, is situated on both sides of the Thames, 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


203 


about fifty miles from its mouth, in latitude 51^° N. Its pop- 
ulation is 3,814, 57 1 ; nearly equal to that of New England. 

London is the commercial metropolis of the world, and its 
financial capital. 

Among the most noted buildings in the city, are Westmin- 
ster Abbey, St. Paul’s Cathedral, the Tower, and the Houses 
of Parliament. 

Windsor , the residence of the Queen, is on the right bank of 
the Thames, a short distance above London. Near Windsor 
is Runny mede, where, in 1215, the barons compelled King 
John to grant the Magna Charta. 

Oxford , the seat of one of the great universities of England, 
is on the Thames River. Its university consists of twenty-one 
colleges and five halls. 

Canterbury , an inland city in the southeastern part of Eng- 
land, is noted for its cathedral, and for being the residence of 
the Archbishop of Canterbury, the highest ecclesiastical officer 
in England. 

Strait of Dover , twenty-one miles in width. 

Dover , on the Strait of Dover. 

Hastmgs , on the English Channel, noted for the great vic- 
tory won, seven miles northwest of there, in 1066, by William 
the Conqueror. 

Brighton , a famous summer resort and watering-place. 

Isle of Wight , the principal island on the south coast of 
England. On it is the home of the poet Tennyson. 

P or st mouth, the principal naval station of England and the 
most perfectly fortified city in Great Britain, is on an arm of 
the English Channel. 

Plymouth , a seaport city. 

Scilly Islands , a group of small islands at the southwest 
point of England. 

Land's End , the southwestern point of England. 

Bristol Channel , noted for its high tides. 


204 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY 


Severn rises among the mountains of Wales and flows into 
Bristol Channel. It is navigable for small vessels through the 
most of its course. 

Bristol , an important seaport, on the Lower Avon, about 
eight miles from the Severn. The Cabots sailed from hereto 
America in 1497. 

Stratford , a small town on the Upper Avon, is noted for 
being the home of Shakespeare. 

Worcester , an important city of western England, is situated 
on the Severn River, It is noted for the manufacture of por- 
celain. 

Noticing that the source of the Severn is in the Cambrian 
Mountains, we descend that stream and sail west on Bristol 
Channel. I11 southern Wales, we find 

Merthyr - Tydfil, an inland town, noted for the great coal and 
iron fields in its vicinity. 

It is said that the first locomotive used in the world was used 
in connection with the mines at this place. 

Swansea , a seaport of Wales, is noted for its copper-smelting 
furnaces. Copper ore is sent here from all parts of the world 
to be smelted. 

St . David's Head , the southwestern point of Wales. 

St. George's Channel. 

Holyhead , one of the naval stations of Great Britain, is situat- 
ed on a small island by the same name, at the northwest corner 
of Wales. It is the nearest British port to Dublin. 

Irish Sea. 

Liverpool, the second city of Great Britain in commercial 
importance, is situated on the right bank of the Mersey River, 
three miles from the Irish Sea. Its docks extend seven miles 
along the river, and have an area of 1,400 acres. Nearly all 
the raw cotton brought to Europe first finds its way to Liver- 
pool, and is then distributed among the towns on the conti- 
nent. The population is about the same as that of Chicago. 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


205 


Manchester , the leading city of the world in the manufac- 
ture of cotton goods, is on the Irwell River a few miles north 
of the Mersey. Its proximity to the rich coal-fields of northern 
England has had a marked influence on its prosperity. Popu- 
lation about the same as that of St. Louis. 

Isle of Man, one of the most noted watering places in Great 
Britain, is about equi-distant from England, Scotland, and Ire- 
land. The people speak the Manx language. 

Cumbria?i Mountains , in the northwestern part of Eng- 
land. 

Solway Firth , partly separates Scotland from England. 

Eden , a river of northern England, between the Pennine 
Mountains and the Cumbrian, flows into Solway Firth. 

Dumfries , the most important town of Southwestern Scot- 
land, is on the Nith River, eight miles from the Solway. The 
city is extensively engaged in the manufacture of woolen 
goods and hosiery. The grave of Robert Burns is here. 

Mull of Galloway , a rocky headland forming the south- 
western point of Scotland. 

North Channel . 

Firth of Clyde , an arm of the North Channel. 

Ayr , “Auld Ayr, whom ne’er a town surpasses 
For honest men and bonnie lasses;” 

is situated on a river of the same name. The birthplace of the 

poet Burns is but two miles from Ayr. 

Will it not pay both teacher and pupils to give an hour to 
the study of some of the places made famous by “the poet of 
the people”? 

Clyde , an important river of Scotland, flows into the Firth 
of Clyde. It was the first river regularly navigated by steam- 
ships, and is now noted for the large number of iron steam- 
ships built along its banks, 

Paisley , an important manufacturing city, is situated on a 
branch of the Clyde River. It is especially noted for “Paisley 
Shawls.” 


206 


ADVANCED WORK IN OEOGRAPH V. 


Glasgow , the most populous city of Great Britain next to 
London, is on the Clyde River, twenty-one miles from its 
mouth. It is noted for its commerce and manufactures. Its 
chemical works are the greatest in the world, and owing to 
its being the center of a great coal and iron field, it takes a 
leading position in the manufacture of cotton goods, silks, and 
iron ships. Population 750,000. 

Kintyre , a peninsula between the Firth of Clyde and the 
Atlantic. 

Ben Nevis , the highest point of land on the British Isles, is 
situated east of the south end of the Caledonian canal. Its 
height is 4,406 feet. 

FingaPs Cave , one of the wonders of the world, is on the 
Island of Staffa. 

Hebrides , a group of Islands on the west coast of Scotland* 
separated from the mainland by the Minch. 

Cape Wrath , the northwestern point of Scotland. 

Surface. — If* a line be drawn from Plymouth to York, 
nearly all the lowland in England will be east of it and the 
mountains west. The land in the vicinity of the Wash is very 
low, much of it has been reclaimed from the North Sea. 

The Cambrian Mountains extend over nearly all of Wales. 
“They do not form a continuous range, but rather rise in dis- 
tinct groups, separated by low passes, and spreading out some- 
times into elevated table-lands, intersected by deep and fertile 
valleys.” Snowden, 3,590 feet in height, is the “Crown 7 ’ of 
the Cambrians. 

The area of Wales is nearly the same as that of Massachu- 
setts. 

The Cumbrian Mountains are situated in the northwestern 
part of England, and constitute a group of mountains rather 
than a chain. They have steep, craggy sides, and are sepa- 
rated by deep, narrow valleys, in many of which are beautiful 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


207 


ponds or lakes. The most famous of these are Windermere 
and Derwent- Water. Near the latter are the “Falls of Lo- 
dore.” Because of its scenery, this region is frequently spoken 
of as the “Switzerland of England.” 

The Pennine Mountains connect on the north with the 
Cheviot Hills, extend south through the center of England to 
the Trent River, and are separated from the Cumbrians by 
the valley of the Eden. In the main they consist of a high 
plateau, quite wide on top. 

The principal manufacturing districts of England are found 
east and west of these mountains, because of the large coal- 
fields in the vicinitv. 

The Grampian Hills divide Scotland into two parts — the 
Highlands on the north, and the Lowlands on the south. The 
valleys of the Clyde and Forth comprise the principal part of 
the level land that is found, even in the Lowlands; while in the 
Highlands there is no valley of sufficient size to relieve the 
country from its very rough and mountainous appearance. 

The area of Scotland is about equal to that of South Caro- 
lina, and its population to that of Illinois. 

ciim atE. — The climate of Great Britain is mild and equa- 
ble. Lying in the course of the tepid waters of the Gulf 
Stream, it is saved from the extremes of climate to which other 
countries in the same latitude are subject. 

In summer, when the temperature of the land is higher than 
that of the ocean, the latter exercises a moderating influence 
upon the degree of heat. And in winter the warm waters 
raise the temperature of the land, making it equal to that of 
North Carolina. 

The climate of the west coast is milder and more even than 
that of the east coast. Mid-winter is colder in London than 
in the Hebrides. In no part of the island do the rivers become 
ice-bound as they do in Illinois, although much farther north. 

But this moderate climate has its disadvantages. Cold, disa- 


208 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


greeable rains accompanied by strong winds, are frequent in 
winter. Grains must be sown in February and March in order 
to ripen in August and September; and Indian corn will not 
mature at all on the island. 

Leading Industries. — The area of England is less than 
that of Illinois, and it has more land that cannot be cultivated 
than the latter has, yet it has seven times as gi*eat a popula- 
tion. 

To support these millions requires more food than the soil 
is able to produce, notwithstanding the perfection which the 
English have attained in agricitlture. And although all the 
arable land is cultivated with care, and made to yield the great- 
est possible harvests, a large portion of the food of the people 
has to be imported from other countries. 

The principal crops are wheat, oats, rye, barley, Irish pota- 
toes, turnips, peas, etc. 

Next in importance to agriculture, are the mineral resources 
of the island. Of these coal is the most important, and iron 
next. But lead, tin, copper, and zinc, are found in large quan- 
tities. The manufacture of iron, and iron ware of all descrip- 
tions, from a nail to a locomotive, and from a toy pistol to the 
largest sized cannon, is very valuable. 

The great manufacturing districts of England are in the 
north, in the vicinity of its coal-fields, to which they owe much 
of their prosperity. 

The leading manufacture is that of cotton-goods, which form 
two-fifths of the exports of Great Britain. 

Woolen and worsted goods rank next in importance to cot- 
ton fabrics. 

4 

The manufactures of silk, flax, hosiery, and lace, are of great 
value, but dwindle into insignificance when compared with 
cottons and woolens. 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


209 


Great Britain is pre-eminently a commercial nation. Much 
of the carrying trade of the world is done in British ships, 
whose sails dot all seas. 

\ 

As a test of their knowledge of the subject, let the pupils 
sketch the island showing all places studied. Let the follow- 
ing order be observed; first, the outline, next the mountains, 
followed by the rivers and lakes, and last the towns. 

The children will do this sketching creditably, if they have 
sketched each day’s lesson as the work progressed. If they 
have not, the teacher is blameworthy. 

It will also be found profitable to make a scheme for each 
country, somewhat after the plan of the following scheme for 
England: 


210 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


T3 

To 

r - 1 

w 


z' 


2. Relief. 


i. Lakes. 


3. Drainage. < 




4 - 


C/2 

<U 


C/2 

3 

G 


VO 


r 1. Scotland. 

2. North Sea. 

3. Strait of Dover. 

4. English Channel. 

Boundaries. ^ 5. Atlantic Ocean. 

6. Bristol Channel. 

7. St. George’s Channel. 

8. Irish Sea. 

9. Solway Firth. 

1. Low England. 

1 1. Devonian Mts. 

2. Cumbrian Mts. 

3. Pennine Mts. 

1 Windermere. 

2. Derwent- Water 

1. Tyne. 

2. Humber. 

3. Ouse. 

4. Trent. 

5. Great-Ouse. 

T) • b. Cam. 

2. Rivers. < . rp, 

) 7. I hames. 

8. Severn. 

9. Lower Avon. 

10. Upper Avon. 

1 1. Mersey. 

v 12. Eden. 

Climate — Mild and equable. 

1. Agiculture. 

1. Coal. 4. Tin. 

2. Mining. ^ 2. Iron. 5. Copper. 

3. Lead. 6. Zinc. 

1. Iron ware. 

3. Manufactures. < 3 * ^° 0( ? s ' 

u 3. Woolen and worsted goods. 

4. Silk, linen, hosiery. 

4. Commerce. 

5. Cities. (Write here names of all cities studied in 

England.) 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


21 1 


Ir Eland. — In the northern part of Ireland is 

Lough Foyle , an arm of the Atlantic Ocean ; into it flows 
the Foyle River. 

Londonderry , an important city of Northern Ireland, on the 
Foyle River. 

The Giant's Causeway , east of Lough Foyle, is “a pave- 
ment formed of the tops of 40,000 columns of basalt, incessantly 
washed by the waves of the sea. * * * According to the 

legend, the Giant’s Causeway is the remnant of a road which 
formerly led into Scotland, and, except that this highway was 
not constructed by human hands, the legend is true. The 
strait which now separates Ireland from Scotland, and which 
has a width of only 14 miles, had no existence at the time 
when the volcanic agencies were most active,”* 

North Channel . 

Beljast , the most prosperous town in Ireland, is built on an 
arm of the North Channel. It is the great center of the Irish 
linen trade. 

Drogheda , situated on the Boyne River, four miles from its 
mouth, is noted for the massacre of its inhabitants by Crom- 
well^ in 1649, and for the “Battle of the Boyne,” 1690. The 
‘‘Orangemen” celebrate the anniversary of this battle. 

Dublin , the capital, is on both banks of the LifFey River, a 
small stream which flows into the Irish Sea. 

The city has considerable commerce, and some manufactures. 

It has several beautiful parks, the most noted of which is 
Phoenix Park, containing 1,753 acres. 

Dublin is the residence of the Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, 
who is the principal representative of the British Government 
in Ireland. Population 275,000. 

St . George's Channel . 

Carnsore Point is the southeastern corner of Ireland. 


♦Reclus’s “Europe,” Vol. IV, pp. 384 and 385. 


212 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


Note the position of this point with reference to Southwestern 
Wales. 

Queenstown , a city of 10,000 inhabitants, situated on an 
island in Cork Harbor. It owes its importance to its harbor 
which is said to be the finest in Europe. Steamers from 
America bound for Liverpool usually call at Queenstown. 

Cork , the great commercial center of Southern Ireland, is 
situated on the River Lee, eleven miles from its entrance into 
Cork Harbor. It is the third city of Ireland in size, ranking 
next after Dublin and Belfast. 

Cape Clear . 

Valentia , an island on the southwest coast, is the eastern 
terminus of several lines of “Atlantic Cables.” 

Lakes of Killarney , three connected lakes in the southwest- 
ern part of Ireland, noted for their great beauty. 

Shannon , the largest river of Ireland, rises north of the cen- 
ter of the island and flows southwest through a number of 
lakes into the Atlantic. It is navigable throughout nearly its 
entire length. 

Limerick , the leading port on the west coast, is situated on 
the Shannon River. It has considerable commerce. 

Galway , a thriving city, on a bay of the same name, is 
nearly due west from Dublin. 

Sligo is the principal seaport in Northwestern Ireland. 

Malin Head is the northern point of Ireland. 

Ireland has an area of 32,393 square miles and a population 
of 5,500,000. Its outline is very irregular, being indented by 
many bays which form safe and commodious harbors. 

The surface of Ireland is very uneven. In the center is a 
great plain, extending from the Irish Sea to the Atlantic 
Ocean. North and south of this plain are found many isolated 
mountain systems. The principal ones are the Macgillicuddy 
Reeks in the southwest, 3,414 feet in height, and the Wick- 
low Mountains in the southeast. 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


213 


The climate of Ireland is very humid. “No other country 
of Europe is so abundantly supplied with rain.” This abun- 
dance ot moisture, with an exemption from extreme heat or 
cold (which is secured to it by its position in the path of the 
Gulf Stream), accounts for the wonderful greenness of the 
“Emerald Isle.” 

The crops are wheat, oats, barley, rye, potatoes and turnips. 
Large numbers of cattle and sheep are raised. Owing to the 
great humidity of the climate, the crops mature slowly. 
Wheat does not ripen before the first of September, and the 
other grains ripen still later. 

Minerals are not found in sufficient quantities to pay for 
mining them. 




CHAPTER XII. 


NORWAY, SWEDEN, AND THE BALTIC PROVINCES OF RUSSIA. 

We pass from the study of the British Isles to that of the 
continent, and begin with its most northern point, which is 

North Ca'pe , latitude 71 ° 10. We now pass southwest 
along the west coast of Norway, noticing the following places : 

Hammer fest , the most northern town of Europe, and one 
of the principal fishing stations on the coast. It has a continu- 
ous day from May 16 to July 27, as the sun does not sink be- 
low the horizon during that time; and it has continuous night 
from November 21 to January 31, as the sun does not appear 
above the horizon during that period. Population 25OO. 

Lofoden Islands , noted for the great value of their herring 
and cod fisheries. 

Maelstrom , a noted whirlpool south of the Lofoden Islands. 

In passing south from here, notice the position of the Arctic 
circle, and call attention to the ragged appearance of the coast 
of Norway. 

Trondhjem , formerly the capital of Norway, is situated on 
a fiord of the same name at the great bend in -the western 
coast. It is the third city of Norway in population and com- 
merce. The King of Norway and Sweden is here crowned 
King of Norway . 

Bergen , the second city of Norway in population, is situated 
on the southwestern coast, and is a busy, enterprising city. Its 
prosperity is largely due to its trade in fish. 

The Naze , a cape at the southern end of Norway. 

Skager Rack, a. channel south of Norway. 

Christiania , the capital and largest city of Norway, is situ- 
ated at the head of a bay of the same name. It has an exten- 

(214) 


215 



ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 

sive commerce, and is rapidly becoming an important manu- 
facturing center. The king is obliged to reside here three 
months each year. Lat. 59° 55"; pop. n6,ooo. 

Cattegat , the channel which separates Denmark from Swe- 
den. 

Gotha River is the outlet of Lake Wener, and flows into 
the Cattegat; it is navigable its entire length. 

Goteborg , the second city of Sweden in size, and first in 
commercial importance, is situated on the Cattegat at the 
mouth of the Gotha R. It has one of the finest botanic gar- 
dens in Europe. 

Wener , the largest lake in Sweden. 

Baltic Sea . 

Carlskrona , a strongly fortified city and the principal naval 
station of Sweden, is situated on several small islands in the 
Baltic, at the south end of Sweden. 

Gotland , “ good land,” is the largest island in the Baltic 
Sea. It belongs to Sweden. 

Wetter 9 an important lake of Sweden, is situated east of L. 
Wener, with which it is connected by a canal. These lakes 
with their outlets and connecting canal, afford a short and safe 
route across Sweden for steamers of light draft. 

Stockholm , the capital of Sweden and the largest city of the 
peninsula, is situated partly on eight islands in the outlet of L. 
Maelar, and partly on the banks of the river. Although the 
different parts of the city are connected by excellent bridges 
and causeways, yet, small steamers are found more useful than 
omnibuses for travel. A peculiarity of the city is that “only 
a small number of the people live in houses of their own, the 
majority living in rented flats. Lat. 59 ° 21'; pop. 174,000. 

Maelar , a beautiful lake, is west of Stockholm, and contains 
over 1400 islands. These, with the shores of the lake, are 
dotted with towns and villages. 

Call attention to the swelling of the Swedish coast in the 




2lf> 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


vicinity of Stockholm, and notice that this projection is oppo- 
site the Gulf of Finland. 

Ufsala, the seat of the principal university of Sweden, is 
situated on a small river that flows into L . Maelar. Here 
tradition locates the u High Hall,” or Walhalla of the Scan- 
danavian gods, and near it the graves of Odin, Thor, and 
F reya. 

Gulf of Bothnia , the name given to that portion of the Bal- 
tic Sea north of Stockholm and the Gulf of Finland. 

Tornea , a small river on the boundary between Sweden and 
Russia, flows into the Gulf of Bothnia. 

We have now passed around the Scandinavian peninsula, 
observed its shape, and located a few of its principal capes, 
bays, lakes and cities. Let the pupils make a sketch of the 
peninsula on the blackboard, and on it locate the points learned. 
When this is done call their attention to the surface. 

The Scandinavian Mountains extend from the northern 
point of the peninsula to the Naze. The boundary line be- 
tween the two countries follows, for the most part, the line of 
highest elevation. The mountains are divided naturally into 
the Kiolen mountains on the north, and extending south to 
Trondhjem, and on the south the Dovrefield. Among the 
Dovrefield is found “ the largest snow field in Europe, with 
an area of 360 square miles, encircled by inaccessible rocks, and 
everywhere skirted by glaciers.” 

The Norwegian slope of the mountains is not, on an aver- 
age, more than one-fourth as wide as the Swedish slope, hence 
the surface of Norway is much more broken than that of 
Sweden. 

On account of its rough surface, Norway has no navigable 
rivers, but many of them are noted for the wonderful beauty 
of their falls and rapids. 

The Scandinavian peninsula passes through as many de- 
grees of latitude as from Maine to Florida, hence, its climate 
varies considerably. It is more mild and even on the west 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


217 


coast than in corresponding latitudes on the east, the difference 
being due to the influence of the Gulf Stream. 

Where the nature of the surface admits of it, agriculture is 
the leading industry of the people. Large crops of the cereals 
and common fruits are raised, especially in Sweden, which is 
the better fitted for farming. 

Fishing furnishes employment for a large number of the in- 
habitants, and both countries reap a rich harvest from their 
magnificent forests. 

Attendance at school is compulsory between the ages of 
seven and fourteen. This may account for the industry and 
intelligence of the people, and their proverbial politeness. 
Both countries are ruled by the same king, but each makes its 
own laws . 

Lapland, a country of northern Europe, having an area of 
33,000 square miles, and lying partly in Norway and Sweden, 
and partly in Russia, is a cold and dreary region. The peo- 
ple are short of stature, and not overly clean in their habits. 
Their main dependence for food and clothing is the reindeer; 
it is also their beast of burden. Russian Lapland forms the 
northwestern province of the Empire. 

Finland, is a province of Russia, south of Lapland; more 
than half of its surface is covered with lakes. Four-fifths of 
the people are engaged in agriculture. 

Gulf of Finland, a long, narrow arm of the Baltic Sea. 

Cronstadt, the great naval station of Russia, is situated on 
an island in the Gulf of Finland. 

St. Petersburg, the capital and largest city of Russia, is 
situated on the Neva River, near its mouth. The city is built 
in a swamp, and to save it from sinking into the ground, it is 
built on piles driven to great depths. So great were the suf- 
ferings endured by those who laid the foundations of the city 
that 100,000 lost their lives. It is frequently spoken of as the 
u Paris of the North,” on account of its magnificent streets, 


2 1 8 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


majestic buildings, and the gayety of its people. Lat. 50 0 5 6 7 ; 
pop. 876,000. 

You will notice that the capitals of Russia, Sweden and 
Norway are nearly on parallel 60 0 N. To the east, this par- 
allel passes close toYakoutsk, the coldest city in the world. To 
the west it passes through the southern point of Greenland, 
northern Labrador, Mount St. Elias, and along the southern 
shore of Alaska. Why is not the climate of Labrador and 
Siberia as mild as that of Norway, Sweden and Russia, on 
the same parallel? 

Ladoga , the largest lake of Europe, is situated in the north- 
western part of Russia. The Neva R. is its outlet. 

Riga , an important commercial city, is on the Duna R. five 
miles from its entrance into the Gulf of Riga. 

Valdai Hills , a range of low hills, forming the principal 
water-shed of Russia. 


CHAPTER XIII. 


THE GERMAN EMPIRE, DENMARK AND HOLLAND. 

..Passing south from the Gulf of Riga, we soon come to the 
boundary line between Russia and Germany. Before pro- 
ceeding farther on our journey it will be profitable to learn a 
few rules for the pronunciation of German names. The fol- 
lowing list is submitted: 


German 

a has 

the sound of a 

in father . 

u 

e 

11 

u 

a 

u fate . 

i< 

i,y and ie 

it 

e 

u scene . 

it 

u 

u 

u 

00 

u boon . 

Cl 

ei, ai 

u 

it 

• 

1 

“ time. 

a 

au 

it 

it 

ow 

u brow . 

11 

eu , au 
• • 

it 

oi 

noise . 

Cl 

th 

it 

tc 

t 

u hat. 

11 

V 

tc 

It 

f 

“ life. 

Cl 

w 

it 

It 

V 

u move. 

cc 

z 

it 

It 

is 

“ gets. 

Cl 

ch is 

a stronger 

aspirate than English h. 

Cl 

h is 

silent 

except at the beginning of a 


word. 

These simple rules, if properly learned and used, will en- 
able one to pronounce correctly nearly all names found in 
the ordinary geography ; but it must be remembered that many 
German names have become Anglicised , and may be pro- 
nounced according to the rules which govern the pronuncia- 
tion of English names. 

jfi Zonigsberg or Koenigsberg, u the king’s hill,” is an impor- 
tant city of northeastern Germany. It exports large quanti- 

(219) 


220 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


tities of hemp, flax, tow and timber; and is one of the most 
strongly fortified cities of Germany. 

Bay of Danzig , an arm of the Baltic Sea. 

Vistula, an important river of northern Europe, rises among 
the Carpathian Mountains, flows northwest into the Bay of 
Danzig. 

Danzig, the principal grain market of Germany, on the Bal- 
tic, is situated on the left bank of the Vistula, three miles from 
its mouth. Canals intersect many of its streets, and many of 
its houses stand on piles. It is a strongly fortified city. 

Warsaw, formerly the capital of Poland, is now an impor- 
tant city of Russia, on the Vistula R. It has valuable manu- 
factories for woolen and linen fabrics, and numerous tanneries, 
breweries and distilleries. Pop. 302,475. 

Cracow, an important city of Austria, is situated on the left 
bank of the Vistula R. It is an important grain market, and 
in its vicinity are valuable mines of coal, zinc and salt. 

Oder River . 

Stettin, a noted maritime city of northern Germany, is on 
the Oder R. It has extensive ship yards, machine shops, pot- 
teries and breweries, and is the Baltic seaport of Berlin. 

Breslau, one of the leading grain and wool markets of Ger- 
many, is also on the Oder R. It is a railroad center, and is 
surrounded by rich mining and agricultural districts. Pop. 

240.000. 

Lubeck, the oldest city on the Baltic, is situated on the Trave 
R., ten miles from the Baltic. It has considerable commerce, 
and many ship yards and factories. 

Passing out of the Baltic Sea by the same route we entered, 
we first come to The Sound, near the south end of which is 

Copenhagen, the capital of Denmark, on Seeland Island. 
Its position at the gate of the Baltic has made it a great com- 
mercial center. One-fourth of the industries of Denmark,and 
one-eighth of its population are centered in Copenhagen. Pop. 

200.000. 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


1 I 

Am Am l 


Continuing our journey we pass through the Cattegat and 
Skager Rack Channels into the North Sea, stopping only to 
notice Cape Skagen, the northern point of Denmark. 

The Kingdo?n of Denmark occupies the northern half of 
the peninsula of Jutland, and several of the adjacent islands. It 
is bounded on three sides by water, and on the south by Ger- 
many. 

The water-shed extends north and south nearly in the cen- 
ter; but there is not room for rivers of any importance to 
commerce. 

The soil on the west slope is very sandy, and poorly fitted 
for agriculture. The east slope is more fertile, but the climate 
is not so mild and even as on the west. Denmark is an aeri- 

o 

cultural country; for notwithstanding its natural sterility, it is 
made to yield large crops by means of fertilizers and careful 
tillage. Much attention is also given to the raising of live 
stock. 

Sailing south on the North Sea we soon come to the 

Elbe River , which rises in Bohemia, and flows northwest 
into the North Sea. 

Hamburg , the foremost city of the continent in commerce, 
and next to Berlin the most populous city of Germany, is situ- 
ated on the Elbe R., sixty-five miles from its mouth. The tide 
enables the largest vessels to ascend to the quays and docks of 
the city. Hamburg is the capital of a small independent state, 
which has an area of 157 square miles. Pop. 275,000. 

Havel R . is a tributary of the Elbe, and it is connected with 
the Oder by canal. 

Potsdam , the summer residence of the kings of Prussia, is 
situated on the Havel. Its environs abound in royal palaces. 

Sj)r ee a small tributary of the Havel. 

Berlin , the capital of Prussia and all Germany, is situated 
on the Spree R., in latitude 52 0 45. In 1876, it had a popu- 
lation of 1,059,519, and at present it probably ranks with New 
York, Peking, Tokio and Vienna. Its manufactures are 


2 22 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


numerous and varied, and give employment to sixty thousand 
persons. It has famous buildings and streets, among the lat- 
ter is u Unter den Linden,” one of the finest in Europe. The 
University of Berlin has in attendance 2600 students. 

Magdeburg , a very strongly fortified city, is situated on the 
great bend of the Elbe. 

<D 

Halle , the seat of one of the principal universities of Ger- 
manv, is on the Saale. R. which flows into the Elbe from the 
southwest. The city is indebted for its existence to the rich 
salt mines in its vicinity. 

Leipzig , one of the leading cities of Germany, is southwest 
of the Elbe. It is the center of the German book trade, and 
its university is attended by 3000 students. It is the center of 
an extensive railroad system, and is noted for its great fairs, 
which are attended by merchants from all civilized countries. 

Dresden , the capital of Saxony, is situated on both sides of 
the Elbe, and is regarded as the most pleasant city in Ger- 
many. u Dresden abounds in museums, the state alone pos- 
sessing thirteen, every one of which teems with treasures of 
art. The gallery of paintings is the richest of Germany, and 
one of the most famous in the world.” The surrounding coun- 
try is frequently spoken of as the u Switzerland of Germany.” 

Prague , the capital of Bohemia, “ is one of the finest cities 
of the world.” It is on the Moldau River, a branch of the 
El be. Next to Vienna and Buda-Pesth, it L the most popu- 
lous city of the Austrian Empire. Pop. 223,000. 

JVeser , a river of northern Germany. 

Bremen , one of the free cities of Germany, is situated on 
hoth banks of the Weser. It is the capital of the Republic of 
Bremen, which has an area of 97 square miles, and is at pres- 
ent a part of the German Empire. More emigrants come 
from Bremen to the United States than from any other Ger- 
man port. 

Brunswick , the capital of a duchy of the same name, is situ- 
ated on one of the eastern tributaries of the Weser. 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


223 


Hanover , capital of the Province of Hanover, is on a tribu- 
tary of the Weser. It is noted for its cotton mills, dye works, 
chemical works, foundries and machine shops. 

Harz , a celebrated group of mountains, between the Weser 
and Elbe, noted for silver, lead and iron mines. 

Sailing west from the Weser River we reach Holland, and 
here notice 

Zuider Zee , “ South Sea,” an arm of the North Sea. 

Amsterdam , the largest city of Holland, is built on ninety 
islands, in an arm of the Zuider Zee. The different parts of 
the city are connected by three hundred and fifty bridges. 
Canals pass through • all parts of the city, and almost all of 
them are bordered by two wide streets and two rows of linden 
trees. The houses are nearly all built on piles, and very high. 
This is the leading commercial city of Holland. Diamond 
cutting is the chief industry of the city. Pop. 300,000. 

Leyden , a city of great historical importance, is situated on 
the Old Rhine. It is the seat of the principal university of 
Holland. 

Utrecht , a famous old city, noted for several treaties made 
there, is situated on the Old Rhine. 

The Hague , the capital of Holland, “ is a city half Dutch 
and half French, with broad streets and no canals; vast squares 
full of trees, elegant houses, splendid hotels, and a population 
mostly made up of the rich, nobles, officials, artists and liter- 
atim It is situated near the North Sea. 

Rotterdam , the most thriving city of Holland, is situated on 
the Maas R. In commercial importance it is second only to 
Amsterdam. Broad and long canals divide the city into many 
islands, united by bridges. On each side of every canal ex- 
tends a street, flanked by trees on one side and houses on the 
other. The canals are wide and deep, and covered with ships 
and barges of all descriptions. 

Holland is one of the smaller countries of Europe, and looks 
out upon the North Sea from which much of its soil had to be 


224 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


won. The southeastern part of the country rises to an eleva- 
tion of 700 feet above the sea level ; but much of Holland is 
below the level of the sea, consequently wherever the coast is 
not defended by sand banks, it has to be protected by dykes. 

Some of the rivers lost themselves in swamps and marshes 
which covered much of the country. Channels were made for 
these rivers, in which they were confined by strong embank- 
ments, or dykes, placed along their sides. Lakes were drained, 
or rather they were pumped dry, and converted into fertile 
farms. This was done by building dykes around the lakes, 
erecting windmills on the dykes, and pumping the water into 
canals that carried it to the rivers. The windmill is peculiarly 
a Dutch “ institution.” By its aid the people have changed a 
land that was “ fit only for seals and beavers” into one of the 
most fertile and wealthy in Europe. The windmill is found 
on the dykes along the ocean, on the dykes bordering the riv- 
ers, and on the dykes surrounding the “ polders,” or reclaimed 
lakes. Without it there could have been no Holland. 

“Over the whole country extends an immense network of 
canals, which serve both for the draining of the land, and as a 
means of communication. The cities, by means of canals, 
communicate with the sea; canals run from town to town, and 
from them to villages, which are themselves bound together 
by these watery ways, and are connected even with the houses 
scattered over the country; smaller canals surround the fields 
and orchards, pastures and kitchen gardens, serving at once as 
boundary wall, hedge, and roadway; every house is a little 
port. Ships, boats, rafts move about in all directions, as in 
other places carts and carriages. ' The canals are the arteries 
of Holland, and the water her life blood.”* 

Travelers have much to say of the sights that may be wit- 
nessed on these canals. Sometimes a large boat is towed by a 
man, sometimes by a man and woman, sometimes by a woman 
and cow harnessed together, and sometimes by a woman 


*De Amicis. 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


225 


alone. Many of the people live in boats throughout the year. 

The Rhine River, after entering Holland, soon divides, the 
southern and principal arm taking the name Waal, and uniting 
with the Maas above Rotterdam. The northern arm is known 
by the name Rhine, until it divides, when the southern or main 
arm takes the name Leek, and that also unites with the Maas; 
while the northern arm, known as the Old Rhine, passes 
through Utrecht and Leyden to the North Sea. The Maas is 
known in France as the Meuse. 

Holland is a commercial nation, but it pays much attention 
to agriculture. The principal crops are wheat, rye, barley, 
beets, tobacco, flax and hemp. Dairying is carried on exten- 
sively. 

The grand duchy of Luxemburg belongs to the Dutch 
monarch. 

We will suppose that the next lesson to be assigned is on 
the Rhine River, and that you have so prepared yourself for 
the work that you are independent of the text-book. Each 
pupil has his atlas open at the map that best shows the river. 
With chalk in hand you step to the blackboard and show the 
position and direction of the Alps 'Mts., where they form the 
boundary between Switzerland and Italy. Fix the position of 
the mountain knot of Saint Gothard, and tell the class that the 
Rhine R. rises in an iev cave amidst its fastnesses. Then 
sketch the river on the board, and have the pupils follow the 
maps in the books, being ready at any moment to tell what 
important place on the river you are at, or near, in your sketch- 
ing. If any book does not show some important place that 
you wish to give as a part of the lesson, indicate its position 
on the sketch, and let the pupil fix its location on the map in 
his book. Show that the Rhine flows first to the northeast, 
then north between Switzerland and Austria, into Lake Con- 
stance, on which border Switzerland, Austria and Germany. 
Call attention to the shape of the lake, and notice that the 
river flows out of the southern one of the two horns at the 


226 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


west end. The Rhine then flows to the west, with Germany 
on the north, and all of Switzerland, except one canton, on the 
south. About midway between the lake and the great bend, 
the Aar River comes in from the south. Pass up the Aar and 
call attention to the two lakes, Zurich and Lucerne, that dis- 
charge their waters into the Aar; and notice the city of the 
same name at the foot of each lake. If you think it advisable, 
say a few things about the thousands of tourists who visit these 
cities and lakes every summer. Ascending the Aar you will 
soon come to the outlet of Lake Neufchatel. This lake is 
next to the largest in Switzerland; on its west shore is the 
city of Neufchatel, the birthplace of Professor Guyot, the em- 
inent geographer. Farther up the Aar is Bern, the capital of 
Switzerland; and the source of the river is found on^the slopes 
of Mount St. Gothard. Call attention to the fact that the great 
bend in the Aar is caused by the Jura Mts. Going west on the 
Rhine you will soon come to Basel on the great bend of the 
river, and in the northwest corner of Switzerland. From here 
the Rhine flows a trifle east of north, for quite a distance. 
Descend the river, calling attention to its principal tributaries, 
cities and bends, giving such information about the cities and 
the country on either side of the river as you may think best. 
By following the plan here indicated, and noting the follow- 
ing places, it is believed that the study of the Rhine may be 
made of value to the pupils. 

Basle , or Basel, an important commercial city, is situated on 
the great bend of the Rhine; it has manufactories for chem- 
ical products and silk. 

Strassburg , the capital of Alsace, is situated on the 111 
River, near the west bank of the Rhine. The Germans re- 
covered the city from the French in i870. The cathedral of 
Strassburg is noted for its beauty and the height of its spire. 

Baden is a famous watering place east of the Rhine; it is 
indebted to its springs altogether for its prosperity. 

Carlsruhe , “Charles’s rest,” the capital of the grand duchy 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


227 


of Baden, is an important railroad center, four miles east of the 
Rhine. 

Mannheim , an important commercial city, is situated at the 
confluence of the Neckarwith the Rhine. 

Heidelberg , noted for its University, is on the Neckar 
River. 

Worms, noted for many famous diets held there, is situated 
on the west bank of the Rhine. 

Alain , a very crooked river of Germany, flows into the 
Rhine from the east, at one of the great bends of that river. 

Frankfort-on- Main, one of the old free cities of Germany, 
is situated on the Main R., twenty miles from its junction 
with the Rhine. Frankfort was the seat of the German Diet; 
it is at present one of the great money marts of Europe. 

Mainz, a famous military station, is situated on the Rhine, 
opposite the mouth of the Main. 

Coblenz, the capital of Rhenish Prussia, is situated at the 
junction of the Moselle River with the Rhine. Across the 
Rhine from Coblenz is Ehrenbreitstein, the strongest fortress 
in Germany. Ehrenbreitstein is connected with Coblenz by 
a bridge of boats. It is built on a rock 490 feet high, and is 
inaccessible but from one side. It has cisterns sufficient to 
hold a supply of water for its garrison and inhabitants for 
three years in case of a siege. 

Metz, a garrison town of Germany, taken from the French 
in the late Franco-Prussian War, is situated on the Moselle 
R. It has much decreased in population since its annexation 
to Germany. 

Moselle R. rises on the west slope of the Vosges Mts. 

Bonn, noted for its university, is situated on the west bank 
of the Rhine. 

Cologne, the most populous city of Rhenish Prussia, is 
situated on the west bank of the Rhine. It is noted for its 
commerce, chemical works, machine shops, and for its manu- 
facture of perfumery and pottery. Pop. 155,000. 


228 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


It is not necessary to descend the Rhine any further at this 
time, as the remaining towns of importance on the river have 
been taken in connection with the work on Holland. But 
attention should be called to them, that the children may be 
able to see the river from its source to its mouth. 

We have visited all of the important towns of Germany, 
excepting Aix-la-Chapelle, which is situated on a branch of 
the Meuse, and noted for being the capital of Charlemagne’s 
empire; and Munich, the capital of Bavaria, in the basin of 
the Danube R. It is possible that more places have been 
noticed than can be studied profitably by the class in the 
allotted time; if so, reduce the number by leaving out the less 
important ones. Have the class sketch the Rhine. 

The German Empire, constituted in 1871 , consists of four 
kingdoms, six grand duchies, five duchies, seven principalities, 
three free cities, and Alsace-Loraine, which was recovered 
from France in 1870. It contains an area of 209,148 sq. mi., 
and a population of 42,727,360. 

See that its boundaries are correctly given. 

The surface of Germany slopes to the north. It is naturally 
divided into four divisions, — the high region in the south, con- 
sisting of the ranges of the Alps and their ramifications; the 
region of the high plateaus north of the Alps; the mountain- 
ous region of central Germany, consisting of low mountains 
and narrow valleys; and the low plain along the Baltic and 
North Seas. This plain is so low in places that dykes have 
to be built to protect it from inundation. 

The climate of Germany is 'cold-temperate, there being but 
little difference between the climate of the north and that of 
the south, owing to the elevation of the southern part of 
the country. 

The principal crops are rye, wheat, barley, flax, hemp, po- 
tatoes, sugar-beet, hops, tobacco, and the vine. Germany has 
about 310,000 acres of vineyards. In former years grain was 
exported, but at present the country is not able to supply its 
own wants, and has to import wheat, rye and barley. 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


229 


“ Many of the farm houses of Northern Germany are built 
of brick, one story, and either thatched with straw or reeds, 
or covered with tiling. They are often a hundred feet in 
length, forty or fifty feet in width, and the roof very steep, so 
that fifty or sixty tons of hay, with rye, wheat and oats can 
be stowed away in the attic. There is no chimney in the 
house, and the smoke, when the weather is not too cold, es- 
capes at the front door. The floor, except in the bedrooms, 
is paved with small, round stones, or else is made of cement. 
Large hams and sides of bacon hang from the upper ceiling, 
and no other smoke-house is needed. These houses are not 
generally scattered over the country at great distances, but, 
rather, grouped together in villages;*” the owners are usually 
quite wealthy. 

Germany is rich in coal, iron, zinc, lead and copper mines. 
It ranks next to England and the United States in its iron 
works. In addition to iron and steel, it is also extensively en- 
gaged in the manufacture of linen, cotton and woolen goods. 
Its glass works and potteries are very important, but are far 
surpassed by the products of its breweries and distilleries. 

The Germans are a polite people, and, especially in Prus- 
sia, a well educated people. The upper classes are well posted 
in the history of their own country, and take a lively interest 
in the affairs of other nations. But the lower classes have a 
hard struggle to keep want from the door; it taxes all their 
energies to obtain a livelihood. “Among the poor the women 
take their full share of labor in the field. They reap, and 
mow, and cradle, and rake, and pitch hay just like the men. 
They carry heavy burdens by means of neck-yokes, and carry 
heavy loads of manure up the steep hills to enrich the vine- 
yards. They plow in the field with horses and oxen, and per- 
form a vast amount of drudgery that we should never think 
even men ought to do.” 


* “ Letters from Europe and America.”- Listaop Kingsley. 


230 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


As a review of the work on Germany, and as a test of the 
accuracy and fullness with which they have done the work, 
have the pupils arrange the points studied, in the form of a 
scheme. The scheme for England will answer as a model. 




CHAPTER XIV. 


BELGIUM, FRANCE, SPAIN, PORTUGAL AND SWITZERLAND. 

The lower course of the Maas is in Holland, and has already 
been studied. If we ascend the river beyond the confines of 
that country, we shall be traveling on the boundary between 
Holland and Belgium for some distance, beyond this the latter 
country lies on both sides of the river, which, in its upper 
course, takes the name of Meuse. The first city of importance 
that we come to is 

Liege , a mining and manufacturing city, situated in rich 
coal and iron districts. Firearms are the principal manufac- 
tures. 

Namur , a city of historical importance, is on a great bend 
of the Meuse River. 

Antwerp, the second city of Belgium in population, is, next 
to Hamburg, the most important maritime city of continental 
Europe. It is situated in Northern Belgium on the Schelde 
River, and is noted both for its commerce, and for the manu- 
facturing of silks, velvets, leather, spirits, and soap. 

Brussels , the capital and largest city of Belgium, is in the 
basin of the Schelde, some distance south of the river. It is 
noted for its manufactures of fine laces, carpets, linens, silks, 
cottons, ribbons, machinery, and mathematical instruments. 
Population 364,327. 

Waterloo , famous for the victory gained June 18, 1815, over 
the French, by the allied armies commanded by the Duke of 
Wellington, is situated nine miles south of Brussels. 

Ghent , the third city of Belgium in population, is situated 
in the northwestern part of the country, on the Schelde. Rivers 

( 2 30 


232 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY 


and canals divide the city into twenty-four islands. The tide 
ascends the river to its quays, giving it superior advantages for 
commerce. It is also connected with the North Sea by a ship 
canal. Ghent is extensively engaged in manufacturing cotton 
and woolen goods. 

The Schelde River rises in France and flows northeast, east, 
and north into the North Sea. 

Bruges, formerly a city of great commercial importance, is 
rapidly going to decay, owing to its lack of a good outlet to 
the sea. 

Ostende , the second port of Belgium, has an entensive com- 
merce, and is the seat of valuable fisheries. 

Belgium — Is one of the smallest countries of Europe, and 
the most densely populated. 

With the exception of a few hills in the southeast, the sur- 
face is low and flat. The basins of the Meuse and Schelde 
comprise nearly the entire country. 

The soil is carefully cultivated and made to yield large 
crops of wheat, rye, oats, flax, hops, potatoes, hemp, and to- 
bacco. 

Owing to the abundance of coal and iron in the country, 
manufacturing is carried on very extensively. The chief arti- 
cles made are fire arms, cutlery, cotton and linen goods, car- 
pets, machinery, and paper. 

The majority of the Belgians speak the Flemish language, 
quite a number speak the German, but “French is the lan- 
guage of Government, of the army, of commerce, industry and 
science.” 

Lille , or Lisle , is in the northwestern part of France. 
It is the principal seat of .the French linen and cotton manu- 
factures. Calicoes, fine linen cloths, thread, and ticking are its 
principal productions. 

Calais , a fortified seaport of F ranee, is situated on the Strait 
of Dover. 200,000 travelers cross the Strait from Dover to 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


23 3 


Calais, annually. It is proposed to dig a tunnnel from Dover 
to Calais. 

Boulogne , an important seaport, is situated south of Calais, 
on the English Channel. 

Le Havre , the principal port of Western France, is situated 
at the mouth of the Seine River. It is a seat of commerce, and 
its docks and quays are on a vast scale. “Lines of steamers 
connect it with Northern Europe, the Mediterranean, and 
America.”* 

Seme River rises in the eastern part of France and flows 
northwest into the English Channel. Ascending the river 
from Havre, we have 

Rouen , the principal cotton manufacturing city in France. 
It is the birth place of La Salle. 

Paris , the capital of F ranee and of the fashionable world, is 
situated on both banks of the Seine River, in latitude 49 0 N.; 
hence, it is on the same parallel as the northern boundary of 
the United States, west of the Great Lakes, and as the mouth 
of the St. Lawrence River. “No other city of the world offers 
equal attractions to persons of the most varied tastes. Paris 
consists of a hundred distinct cities welded into one, and yet, as 
a whole, it is full of individuality.” It is the most important 
commercial city of France, and has various and important 
manufactures. Population 2,500,000. 

Versailles , the most important «and sumptuous suburb of 
Paris, is situated ten miles southwest of that city. 

Returning to the English Channel, and sailing westward we 
come to 

Cherbourg , one of the great naval arsenals of France, situat. 
ed on the peninsula of Normandy. The Alabama, a Confed- 
erate privateer, was sunk off the harbor of Cherbourg in 1864 
by the Kearsarge. 


♦Harper’s Magazine, Dec. 1882, contains a valuable article on Le Havre. 


234 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


The Channel Islands are situated between the peninsulas of 
Normandy and Brittany, and belong to Great Britain. The 
principal ones are Alderney, Guernsey and Jersey; all are 
famous for their cattle and fisheries. 

Brest , next to Toulon the greatest naval arsenal of France, 
is situated on the peninsula of Brittany. Brest is connected 
with the little town of Duxbury in Massachusetts by a tele- 
graph cable. 

Call attention to the numerous fortified places on both sides 
of the English Channel. 

Bay of Biscay. 

Loire , one of the principal rivers of France, rises among 
the Cevennes Mountains, flows west of north for a large part 
of its course, and then west into the Bay of Biscay. 

Nantes , one of the great commercial cities of France, is 
situated on the Loire near its mouth. Historically the name 
of the city is connected with the “Edict of Nantes,” issued in 
1598. 

Tours , one of the most pleasant towns of France, is situated 
on the Loire. It has an extensive trade in corn, wine, brandv 
and dried fruits. 

Orleans , a great historical city of F ranee, is situated on the 
great bend of the Loire. “Upon the fate of Orleans frequent- 
ly depended that of all France; the names of Caesar, Attila, 
Joan of Arc, and De Guise record the sieges it has sustained.” 

St. Etienne the Pittsburg of France,” is situated on a 
small tributary of the Upper Loire. It owes its prosperity to 
the vast coal-fields by which it is surrounded. The atmos- 
phere of the city is filled with coal dust, and the streets and 
houses are covered with it. There are extensive manuf actor, 
ies for iron ware of every description, and silk ribbons. East 

of it are the Cevennes Mountains; west, the Auvergne. 

La Rochelle , a city of historical importance. 

Gironde, an estuary formed by the union of the Dordogne 
and Garonne Rivers. 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


235 


Bordeaux , the third port of F ranee, is on the Garonne River. 

It is surrounded by the great wine-growing regions of 
France, and its chief exports are wines, brandies and fruits. 

Toulouse , southeast of Bordeaux, on the Garonne, owes 
much of its prosperity to its position midway between the At- 
lantic and Mediterranean. 

The Garonne rises on Spanish soil, on the southern slope of 
the Pyrenees, and after a subterranean course of two and a 
half miles, it appears on the northern slope of the mountains. 
It is connected with the Mediterranean by the canal of Lan- 
guedoc. Small vessels can go through France to the Medi- 
terranean by way of this river and canal. 

Noticing the city of Bayonne in the southwestern part of 
France, we come to the Spanish frontier. The Pyrenees form 
the boundary between F ranee and Spain. Before passing into 
Spain, the class should have a clear mental picture of the 
western coast of France, and should transfer the picture to the 
blackboard by placing thereon a sketch showing the shape of 
the coast and the position of all places learned in connection 
with it. 

Spain and Portugal. — The Cantabrian Mountains 
extend west from the Pyrenees to the northwestern part of 
Spain. 

Cafe Ortegal , the northwestern point of Spain. 

Ferrol , in the northwest corner of Spain, is a great naval 
station and fortress, “bristling with guns and containing ar- 
senals and dock-yards.” 

La Coruna , a commercial and manufacturing city, is south 
from Ferrol. It was from here that the “Invincible Armada” 
started out on its disastrous expedition. 

Passing south along the west coast of the peninsula we soon 
come to 

Cafe Finnisierre , the western point of Spain. 


236 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 




The Minho is a small river forming a part of the boundary 
between Spain and Portugal. 

Douro rises in the north-central part of Spain and flows 
west into the Alantic. 




i 


Oporto , the second city of Portugal in population and com- 
mercial importance, and the first in manufactures, is situated 

on the Douro, a short distance from its mouth. The country 

* 

around Oporto is largely engaged in the cultivation of the 
vine, and the city has given its name to a variety of wine. 

"Valladolid , formerly the capital of Spain, is situated on the 
Douro River. Columbus died here. 

Tagus rises in the eastern part of Spain and flows southeast 
into the Atlantic. 


Lisbon , situated on the Tagus, is the capital and largest city 
of Portugal. The city and its suburbs extend nine miles along 
the river, and two miles inland; it is built on seven hills. It 
has suffered severely from earthquakes; the greatest destruc- 
tion was in 1755. Population 253,000. 

Toledo , the “mother of cities,” and one of the most pleasant 
cities in Spain, is situated on the Tagus. It is famous for the 
manufacture of swords. 

Madrid , situated on a small tributary of the Tagus, is the 
capital of Spain. The city is in the midst of the most barren 
district in the country, and its climate is very unpleasant. The 
museums of Madrid are among the richest in Europe. Pop- 
ulation 400,000. 

Cape St . Vincent , the southwest point of Portugal. 

Guadiana , a river of Spain and Portugal, rises in the east- 
ern part of Spain, and flows southwest into the Atlantic. It 
forms some of the boundary between the two countries. 

Palos is a small town east of the mouth of the Guadiana. 
Columbus sailed from here on his first voyage of discovery in 
1492. 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


237 


for 


Guadalquivir is the only river of Spain that is navigable 
quite a distance. 

Seville , situated on the Guadalquivir, is noted for the man- 
ufacture of silks and stuffs interwoven with gold. 

Granada , on a small tributary of the Guadalquivir, was the 
' capital of the Moorish Kingdom. In the city is th e. Alhambra. 

Cordova , the ‘‘nursery of science,” is situated on the Upper 
Guadalquivir. Under the Moors it contained 1,000,000 inhab- 
itants, and had the largest university of the world. 

Cadiz , an important commercial city of Spain, is situated on 
a small island near the coast. 

The Strait of Gibraltar is about fifteen miles wide in the 
narrowest part. 

Gibraltar , on the north side of the strait, is the strongest 
fortification in the world. At the base of the fortress is the 
city of Gibraltar which has considerable commerce. Both 
fortress and town belong to Great Britain. 

Mediterranean Sea , 2,000 miles long. 

Malaga , situated on the Mediterranean, is one of the lead- 
ing commercial cities of Spain. Its principal exports are rais- 
ins, almonds, figs, lemons, oranges, wine, olive oil, etc. 

Valencia , the fourth city of Spain in population, is on the 
east coast of Spain. Its commerce is very extensive. East of 
Valencia are the 

Balearic Islands , which belong to Spain. 

Port Mahon , on the island of Minorca, is the largest city 
on the Balearics. 

Ebro River rises in North-central Spain, and flows south- 
east into the Mediterranean. Its valley is a triangle with the 
apex to the northwest. 

Saragossa , “heioic Saragossa,” on the Ebro River is of 
historical importance. 

Barcelona , situated in the northeastern part of the country, 
on the Mediterranean, is the great pleasure city of Spain. It 


238 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


is the principal commercial city of the nation, and the prov- 
ince of Barcelona is the chief seat of industry in Spain. 

Py 7'enees Mountains . 

In passing around the peninsula call attention to the parallel- 
ism of the rivers flowing into the Atlantic. Show that in go- 
ing north or south through Spain, mountain chains and river 
basins will be found alternating. In traveling north from Ma- 
laga the order will be Sierra Nevada, basin of the Guadal- 
quivir, Sierra Morena, basin of the Guadiana, Sierra de Toledo, 
basin of the Tagus, mountains of Castile, basin of Douro, and 
the Cantabrian Mountains. All of these ranges are connected 
with the range that separates the basin of the Ebro from those 
already named. 

The peninsula produces the ordinary cereals in abundance 
where the rainfall is sufficient, or irrigation can be resorted to 
successfully. But owing to the lack of moisture, parts of Spain 
are not very productive. Many of its productions have already 
been named in connection with the cities; review those. 

Both Spain and Portugal are rich in minerals, especially, 
iron, copper, lead, coal and mercury. Cork is a product of 
both countries. 

In sketching the peninsula your pupils will be aided by hav- 
ing their attention called to the fact that the following distan- 
ces are about equal; from Barcelona to Cape Nau, from Cape 
Nau to Cape de Gata, from Cape de Gata to Gibraltar, and 
from Gibraltar to Cape St. Vincent; and that each is about 
equal to half the distance between Cape St. Vincent and Cape 
Finisterre. 

Resume the study of France by beginning at the source of 
the Rhone, and descending the river. The Rhone rises in one 
of the principal glaciers of Europe, near Mount St. Gothard; 
and its flow is modified by two hundred and sixty other gla- 
ciers. Sketch the river and its belongings as you did the Rhine, 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


239 


showing where the principal tributaries flow in, and the posi- 
tion of the principal cities. As you begin the sketch, call 
attention to the position and direction of the Rhine and Aar, 
with reference to the Rhone, by sketching them a short dis- 
tance. The river flows southwest through Switzerland, 
in a narrow valley, between two of the principal ranges 
of the Alps. About one-third of the distance from the 
source of the river to the sharp bend from which it 
flows northwest into Lake Geneva, is the Simplon Pass, over 
which Napoleon Bonaparte made a great military road twenty- 
six feet wide; it connects Switzerland with Italy. 

South of the sharp bend already referred to, is the Great St. 
Bernard Pass, famous for the monastery and its dogs. 

Lake Geneva , the largest lake in western Europe, is in the 
form of a crescent. 

Lausanne , an important commercial city, is situated on the 
north side of Lake Geneva. It is also a famous summer re- 
sort 

Geneva , the largest city of Switzerland, is situated at the 
western extremity of Lake Geneva, on both sides of the 
Rhone. Its principal manufactures are watches, music boxes ? 
and jewelry. 

Shortly after the Rhone leaves Lake Geneva, it receives the 
Arve River from the southeast. The Arve has its origin in 
the Mer de Glace , “sea of ice,” the most famous glacier of Eu- 
rope. This glacier is situated 011 the slopes of Mount Blanc, 
and slides into the valley of Chamouni,at the annual rate of 328 
feet. 

Mount Blanc, the highest point of Europe, is situated south 
of the east end of Lake Geneva, at the junction of France, 
Italy, and Switzerland. It is 15,810 feet high. 

Before leaving Switzerland, review thoroughly all that has 
been learned concerning it. Be certain that your pupils can 
see it as a whole, and see its position with respect to the sur- 
rounding countries. 


240 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


Picture its grand mountains, beautiful lakes and swift-flow- 
ing rivers. Show that while its mountains forbid farming on 
a large scale, they bring into the country crowds of tourists, 
out of whom the inhabitants make a plentiful harvest. 

Switzerland is a Federal Republic, consisting of twenty-two 
cantons. 

There is no Swiss language. The German is spoken in 
the north and east, the F rench in the west, the Italian in the 
south. 

On leaving Lake Geneva, the Rhone flows west a little, 
and then makes a great bend, being forced south by the Jura 
Mountains, which extend northeast from this point to the 
mouth of the Aar River. From the great bend, the Rhone 
flows west until it meets the Saone from the north, and then 
south to the Gulf of Lyons. The Saone rises in the Vosges 
Mountains and flows south. 

Lyons , at the junction of the Soane and Rhone, is the great 
center of the silk industry. In 1S72 there were 120,000 looms 
within a short radius of Lyons. Most of the weavers work 
at their own homes in the neighboring villages and country in- 
stead of being congregated in large establishments. 

About one-third of the distance from Lyons to the Gulf, the 
Isere River comes in from the east. On it is Grenoble, noted 
for its leather and fortifications. The Isere is formed near 
Grenoble by two streams which come down from the Alps. 
One of these rises in the Cenis Pass, which has a railroad tun- 
nel eight miles in length running through it. and leading into 
Italy. 

Avignon , near the confluence of the Durance and Rhone, 
was for a time the residence of the Popes, and is at present 
noted for the manufacture of silk and agricultural implements. 

The Rhone flows into the Gulf of Lvons. 

«/ 

Which is the greater, the distance from the source of the 
river to Lyons, or that from Lyons to the mouth of the river? 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


241 


Compare the lakes through which the Rhone and Rhine pass, 
and the great bends at Lyons and Basel. 

Marseilles , the leading commercial port of the Mediterranean, 
is situated on the Gulf of Lyons, east of the mouth of the 
Rhone. Upwards of 10,000 large vessels and steamers enter 
its harbor yearly. Its sanitary condition is bad. 

Toulon is the great naval station of France in the Mediter- 
ranean. 

Nice , the “Victorious,” is noted for its salubrious climate. 

Monaco , a city and principality, noted for its gambling 
houses. 

Review all that has been studied about France, and have the 
pupils make a sketch of the country. When the sketch is fin- 
ished let them name the surrounding countries and waters. 

If the work so far has been done fairly, much has been 

learned about the surface. The Pyrenees on the south, the 

•/ • 

Alps, Jura and Vosges on the east, have been studied, and 
their influence upon the surface noticed. It was found that 
the Cevennes Mountains separated the basin of the Rhone 
from that of the Loire, and that the latter was separated from 
the basin of the Gironde by the Auvergne Mountains. And 
the general direction of the rivers shows that all of F ranee, 
west of the basin of the Rhone, slopes to the northwest. 

The mineral wealth of France is small, considering the size 
of the country. None of the precious metals are found 
within its borders. The coal mined does not supply the home 
demand. The iron ores are important, but are unfortunately 
at a great distance from the coal-fields. Lead is found in large 
quantities. Building materials of all kinds are abundant “and 
most of the towns are built of solid stone.” 

France is one of the leading manufacturing countries of the 
world. The great centers of industry are Paris, Lyons and 
Lille. “ W herever coal mines are opened factories spring up 


\ • 

242 ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 

over night.” “The textile industries alone occupy more than 
2,000,000 hands. The silks of France are the best in the 
world; in woolen stuffs, cloth, carpets, and flannels it success- 
fully competes with England ; whilst in cottons it excels in 
quality, if not in quantity.” 

France is a Republic. 


o 



I 


r* 




CHAPTER XV. 


ITALY, MONTENEGRO, GREECE, AND TURKEY. 

In sailing east from F ranee along the coast of Italy, the first 
place of importance we reach is 

Genoa , the birthplace of Columbus, situated on a gulf of 
the same name. It is the busiest port of Italy, and has manu- 
factures of maccaroni, paper, silks, velvets, jewelry and soap. 

Pisa , on the Arno River, is noted for its leaning tower. 
Get a picture of this tower in cyclopedia or natural philosophy. 
Pisa is in the midst of a rich agricultural country, and its uni- 
versity is one of the best in Italy. 

Florence , the “city of flowers,” is situated on the Arno. Its 
art galleries and museums are among the richest in Europe. 
These, with its beautiful monuments, attract to it lovers of art 
from all quarters of the world. 

Leghorn is situated south of the Arno, and is noted for its 
straw goods. 

Elba , an island belonging to Italy, is situated near the coast. 
Napoleon was banished there, but remained only a short time. 
The island is noted also for its rich deposits of iron ore. 

Island of Corsica belongs to France. Napoleon Bona- 
parte was born here Aug. 15, 1769. 

Island of Sardinia belongs to Italy. 

Tiber , the principal river of Central Italy, rises on the west- 
ern slope of the Apennine Mountains and flows southwest into 
the Mediterranean. It is navigable only a short distance. 

Rome , the capital of Italy, is situated on the Tiber River. 
It is the residence of the Pope, and may be termed the capital 
of the Catholic world. It contains 365 churches, the principal 

(243) 


244 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


one of which is St. Peter’s Cathedral, which cost $100,000,000, 
and is the largest religious edifice in the world. Rome has no 
port, and may be justly said to have no immediate vicinity, ow- 
ing to the un healthfulness of the surrounding country. North 
of the city is the Roman Campagna extending from the sea to 
the mountains, and covering an area of 600,000 acres. This re- 
gion was at one time carefully cultivated, and dotted with towns 
and rich villas, now it is exceedingly unhealthy, and not a 
village or hamlet is to be seen on its broad surface. South of 
the city are the Pontine Marshes, which are as unhealthy as the 
Roman Campagna. 

Naples, “new city,” is situated on the beautiful Bay of 
Naples. It is the most populous city of Italy, and ranks next 
to Genoa in commercial importance. Its university is one of 
the oldest and best in Italy. Population 462,000. 

Mount Vesuvius , an active volcano, is southeast of Naples. 
At its western base are the “buried cities,” Pompeii and Her- 
culaneum. 

Strait of Messina separates the island of Sicily from the 
mainland. 

Mount yiEt?ia, on the east end of the island of Sicily is a 
famous volcano. 

Syracuse , a city on the east end of Sicily, is of historical im- 
portance. 

Palermo , the capital of Sicily, is on the northern coast, and 

♦ 

noted for the beauty of its situation. 

Malta , a small island in the Mediterranean, is south of Sic- 
ily; it belongs to Great Britain, and is very strongly fortified. 
Valetta is its capital. 

Gulf of Taranto is south of Italy, and forms the hollow of 
the “boot.” 

Strait of Otranto. 

Brindisi , near the southern end of Italy, is the European 
terminus of the overland route to India and the East. 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


245 


San Marino , a small republic in Italy, is very mountainous, 
and has an area of 22 square miles. Its insignificance has been 
its salvation; it is now under the protection of Italy. 

Bologna , one of the principal railroad centers of Italy, is 
situated on the Reno River. It has manufactures of crape, 
chemical products, musical instruments, silks, and sausages. 
Its university is one of the oldest in Europe. 

Ascending the Po River, which is on about the same paral- 
lel as the north end of New York and Vermont, we notice the 
great number of its tributaries. Several of those that come 
from the north drain long, narrow lakes of wondrous beauty, 
that nestle among the spurs of the Alps. The largest of these 
lakes is Garda, which has for its outlet the Mincio River. On 
the Mincio is 

Mantua , one of the historical cities of Italy. 

Modena and Parma are situated on two small streams that 
flow into the Po from the south. Both cities are manufactur- 
ing centers. 

Como , a beautiful lake situated west of Lake Garda; on it is 
a city of the same name, which has become a famous summer 
resort. 

Milan , one of the leading cities of Italy, is situated in a beau- 
tiful plain north of the Po. It is a manufacturing city, and is 
noted for its cathedral. 

Ticino , the principal tributary of the Po, rises on Mount St. 
Gothard and flows through Lake Maggiore. 

Reivew briefly the other rivers rising on Mt. St. Gothard. 
Have the pupils make a sketch showing the position of the 
rivers; and have them, in thought, stand on the mountain and 
describe the course of each river on its way to the sea. Urge 
them to make their descriptions vivid , setting them the exam- 
ple yourself. 

A railroad tunnel, ten miles in length, passes through the St. 
Gothard Pass, connecting Switzerland and Italy. 


246 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPH V. 


Turin , on the Upper Po, has extensive commerce and valu- 
able manufactures of silks and woolens. 

Vejtice , the “Queen of the Adriatic,” is situated on eighty 
islands, and is intersected by 147 canals. A bridge of 222 
arches and 2000 feet in length connects the city with the main- 
land. Venice has considerable commerce, and manufactures 
looking-glasses, laces, etc. 

Sketch Italy, and when so doing fix its boundaries. 

The surface of Italy may be divided into two grand divisions 
— the basin of the Po, and the long narrow peninsula on the 
south. 

The basin of the Po is bounded on three sides by lofty 
mountains which in the spring send such quantities of water 
to the main river that frequently the valley is flooded, causing 
great destruction of property. To guard against the overflow- 
ing of its banks the Po is flanked by dykes and levees along 
much of its lower course; and yet, in the basin of the Po there 
is an area of 5,000 square miles that can be made productive 
only by means of irrigation. 

The peninsular part of Italy is traversed throughout its entire 
length by the Apennines, which form its water-shed. The 
mountains are east of the center, hence the longest rivers and 
the largest plains of the “leg” of Italy are found on the west 
side of the peninsula. 

On account of its position, and great length from north to 
south, Italy enjoys a varied and excellent climate, which per- 
mits the cultivation of all the common grains and fruits, and a 
variety of tropical products. 

In the basin of the Po, wheat, oats, rye, barley, mulberry 
trees, and the common fruits and vegetables are grown. Ol- 
ives, citrons, oranges and lemons thrive in the southern part of 
the peninsula and on the island of Sicily. 

The manufactures have been spoken of in connection with 
the cities in which they are carried on. 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


247 


Italy is rich in marbles, sulphur, borax, nitre, alum and ala- 
baster; but has only a few metals, of which iron and lead are 
the principal ones. 

Austria joins Italy on the east, and extends south along the 
eastern side of the Adriatic for a considerable distance. Tri- 
este , the great commercial emporium of the Austrian Empire, 
is situated at the head of the Adriatic, east of Venice. Its 
streets are crowded with traders from all civilized nations, and 
in its harbor float the flags of the maritime world. 

At the southern point of Austria is the principality of Mon- 
tenegro , “black mountains,” whose surface consists of a mass 
of grayish mountains cut by a few narrow valleys. It is en- 
tirely independent of Turkey, being recognized as a sovereign 
state by the great powers of Europe. Cettinje is its capital. 

South of Montenegro, Turkey borders on the Adriatic. 

Strait of Otranto. 

Ionian Isles , of which the more important are 

Corfu , the home of the current, 

Cephalonia , the largest of the group, and 

Ithaca , the home of Ulysses. 

The importance of modern Greece is not such as to call for 
a thorough study of its geography. But probably the boys 
and girls will study the history of ancient Greece at some time 
in the near future, and it is well to lay a foundation on 
which to build that history; for without a knowledge of the 
geography of a country, it is impossible to understand its his- 
tory fully. 

Gulf of Lepanto almost divides Greece into two parts. 

The Morea , or Peloponnesus , is the peninsula south of the 
Gulf of Lepanto. 

Cape Matapan is the southern point of the mainland of 
Greece. 

Sparta , anciently a very famous city, is situated on a small 
stream that flows into the gulf east of Cape Matapan. 


248 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


Candia , or Crete , a large island south of Greece, is inhab- 
ited mainly by Greeks, but is under the government of Tur- 
key. 

Cyclades , a group of islands southeast of Greece and be- 
longing to it. 

Corinth is situated on the isthmus which connects the Mo- 
rea with the rest of Greece. 

Athens , the capital of Greece, and anciently the most 
famous city in the world, is situated inland a few miles. 

Negropont is a long, narrow island east of Greece. 

Marathon , a bay and plain east of Athens, opposite the 
south end of the island of Euboea. 

Thermopylae , a narrow pass between the mountains and 
the sea, is situated opposite the northwest corner of the island 
of Euboea. The pass is noted for the stand made by Leoni- 
das against the Persians, in 4S0 B. C. 

In teaching the geography of Greece you will remember 
that its area was enlarged considerably in 1881. Its northern 
boundary is very irregular. 

The surface of Greece is very mountainous, and on account 
of the difficulty of building roads, the different parts of the 
country have but little intercourse. The ordinary grains are 
raised, and tobacco, madder, figs and oranges can be cultivated 
profitably, while the quality of the olive oil of Attica and the 
wines of the Cyclades is as excellent as in the palmy days of 
Greece. But agriculture progresses slowly, only one-seventh 
of the area being under cultivation. Neither does manufac- 
turing prosper, and the Greeks would be doomed to starvation 
if they did not keep a large number of merchant vessels in the 
carrying business of the Mediterranean. 

Olympus , a mountain prominent in Greek mythology, is 
situated in the southern part of Turkey, west of the bay of Sa- 
lonica. 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


249 


Salonica , a city of Turkey, on a gulf of the same name, 
stands on the site of the ancient Thessalonica. 

Peninsula of Mount Athos , the most eastern of the three 
tongues of land lying directly east of Salonica, “is the property 
of a republic of monks who govern themselves according to 
their own fancy. A company of Christian soldiers is stationed 
at the peninsula to prevent the sacred soil from being dese- 
crated by the footsteps of a woman. No female has set foot 
upon the peninsula for fourteen centuries.” 

Maritza , a river of Turkey, rises in the Balkan Mountains, 
and flows into the yEgean Sea. 

Adrianople, an important city of Turkey, is situated on the 
Maritza. It is noted for the manufacture of Attar of Roses. 

Philippopolis , on the Maritza, is an important manufactur- 
ing town. 

Balkan Mountains extend east and west through Turkey. 

Strait of Dardanelles . 

Marmora Sea , noted for the marble quarries on its islands, 
is situated between Europe and Asia. 

Bosporus , a narrow strait, connects the Black Sea and Sea 
of Marmora. 

Constantinople, or Stamboul , the capital and largest city 
of Turkey, is situated on the European side of the Bosporus, 
at its junction with the Marmora Sea. The “Golden Horn,” 
an inlet of the Strait of Bosporus, forms an excellent harbor. 
The city is a great commercial center, but, like most Turkish 
cities, is rapidly declining in population and importance. Po- 
pulation 650,000. 

Black Sea. 

Balkan Mountains : connect them with the Alps. 

The Balkan Mountains may be said to form the northern 
boundary of Turkey, as Bulgaria is almost independent, being 
assured of a Christian ruler, and protection by the Great 
Powers; while Bosnia is virtually, though not nominally, a 


250 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


part of Austria-Hungary, that power having occupied it since 
1878. 

The surface of Turkey is diversified with mountain, plain, 
and valley. Nearly all of it is well fitted for agriculture, but 
that noblest of callings is carried on in a very primitive and 
slovenly manner; and a large portion of the country is covered 
with forests. 

The principal crops are wheat, rye, oats and barley in the 
north; maize, cotton, olives, citrons and tobacco in the south. 
The leading minerals are iron, lead, salt, and marble, but none 
of these are mined in sufficient quantities to be of much bene- 
fit to the nation. 

The manufactures of Turkey are varied, but are all on a 
small scale. Saddles, fire arms, swords, coarse woolen cloths, 
shawls, linen, and silks, are the principal products. 

The ruler is styled Sultan. The inhabitants are of various 
races, the Turks constitute but a small portion. The Turks 
are Mohammedans. 





CHAPTER XVI. 


AUSTRIA, HUNGARY, SERVIA, BULGARIA, ROUMANIA AND 

RUSSIA. 

Teach the geography of the Danube as you did that of the 
Rhine and Rhone. Beginning at its source, sketch the river, 
showing its principal tributaries and towns. As you are sketch- 
ing the river call the attention of the class to any facts you 
wish to have learned in regard to the cities, country, or people. 
Have the pupils open their books at the map of the Danube, 
and notice its direction, prominent bends and chief cities, as 
you indicate them on the sketch. Of course, when reciting 
this lesson the next day, they should be able to place the 
sketch on the board without the aid of their books or maps. 

Begin by placing on the blackboard a portion of the Rhine, 
showing the great bend at Basel. Locate the Black Forest 
Mts., and proceed with the work somewhat as follows : 

Danube R . rises among the Black Forest Mts., near Basel, 
and flows northeast to 

Ratisbon , where it reaches its most northern point, in about 
the latitude of the mouth of the St. Lawrence R., and the 
northern boundary of the United States. From Ratisbon the 
Danube flows southeast quite a distance. 

Munich , the capital of Bavaria, is situated on the Isar R., 
which flows into the Danube from the southwest. It is noted 
for its telescopes, mathematical instruments, glass and beer. 

Inn R . is partly on the boundary between Germany and 
Austria-Hungary. 

From its source to the mouth of the Inn R. the Danube is a 
German R., but flows from the Inn to Belgrade through Aus- 
tria-Hungary. Call attention to the fact that between the Inn 

(251) 


252 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


and Vienna it is pressed southward by the mountains of Bo- 
hemia. The pupils should be able to see for themselves that 
the basins of the Danube and Elbe are here separated by only 
a short distance. 

Vienna , the capital of Austria-Hungary, is situated on the 
right bank of the Danube. It is a well-built city, and can 
boast of having the largest park in Europe, and one of the 
best universities on the continent. It is extensively engaged 
in the manufacture of silks, carriages, steam-engines and ma- 
chinery. The Jews of Vienna control its money market and 
its press. Pop. 1,104,000. 

On the eastern boundary of Hungary the Danube receives 
the March R. from the north, and immediately after breaks 
through the Little Carpathian Mts., and flows through Press- 
burg. It will be noticed that the tributaries of the March rise 
very close to some of the tributaries of the Elbe, Oder and 
Vistula. Austerlitz and Olmutz are historical towns on trib- 
utaries of the March. 

The Danube flows east through Hungary for some distance 
and then makes a sharp bend to the south. 

Buda-Pesth , the capital of Hungary, is situated on both 
sides of the Danube R., a short distance below the great bend. 
The two parts of the city are connected by two iron bridges. 
It is growing rapidly, and has an extensive commerce, due to 
its position on a navigable river and in the center of a net work 
of railroads. The principal manufactures are flour, leather, 
machinery, silks, tobacco, spirits, etc. “Buda-Pesth is insa- 
lubrious, and the death rate is greater than perhaps in any 
other city of Europe.” Pop. 320,000. 

Drave R. forms the southwestern boundary of Hungary. 

Theiss R. rises among the Carpathian Mts., flows west, then 
south into the Danube. 

Save R. rises in the Alps, and for the most of its course 
forms the boundary between Austria on the north and Bosnia 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


2 53 


and Servia on the south. It is about on the same parallel with 
the Po and northern New York and Vermont. 

Let the pupils learn to bound Austria-Hungary, giving all 
rivers and mountains that separate it from other countries. 

In describing the surface it may be well to begin with the 
great plain of Hungary which forms the central and most im- 
portant part of the Empire. On the north of Hungary are the 
Little Carpathian and Carpathian Mts. ; the latter merge into 
the Transylvanian Mts. on the south. East of Hungary is 
the plain of Moravia, and east of that is the plain of Bohemia, 
surrounded by mountains. The southwestern part of the Em- 
pire is traversed by the Alps and their ramifications, fe^nce it 
is very rough and broken. 

The country is well suited to agriculture, and the great 
wealth of the nation consists in its varied products, The prin- 
cipal crops are oats, wheat, potatoes, sugar-beet, flax, hemp, 
tobacco and olive oil. 

The principal minerals are coal, iron, salt, sulphur, gold, sil- 
ver, etc. 

The manufactures have been named in connection with the 
cities in which they are carried on. 

Let the pupils complete this scheme : 


2 54 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


1. Boundaries 


" i. Principal Mountains 


2. Surface < 


2. Principal Plains 


3. Rivers 


4. Crops 


Austria-Hungary. < 


5. Minerals 


6. Manufactures 


7. Cities 

Servia was until recently a semi-independent state, pay- 
ing tribute to Turkey, and occupied by a Turkish garrison 
As a result of the late Turko-Russian war, it is now an inde- 
pendent kingdom. 

The surface is everywhere rocky, hilly, or mountainous, ex 
cept along the Save. 

Agriculture is in a backward state, and manufactures car 
hardly be said to exist. The peasants are ignorant and super 
stitious and “ firmly believe in vampires, sorcerers and magi 
cians, and in order to guard against their evil influences, the) 
rub themselves with garlic on Christmas eve.” 





ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


2 55 


Belgrade , “ white city,” the capital of Servia, is situated at 
the junction of the Save with the Danube. Its geographical 
position insures it considerable trade. 

Bulgaria is bounded on the north by the Danube R. and 
Roumania, on the east by the Black Sea, on the south by the 
Balkan Mts., and on the west by Turkey and Servia. 

It is tributary to Turkey, but makes its own laws and is 
governed by a Christian prince. 

The surface is comparatively level, and the principality 

could be made, by proper tillage, one of the richest agricultural 

countries of Eurooe. 

▲ 

Sophia, the capital of Bulgaria, is situated on the route 
from Constantinople to Belgrade. It is noted for the number 
of its mosques and churches. 

From Belgrade to Roumania the Danube passes through a 
succession of gorges for about sixty miles. In some parts of 
this distance the navigable channel is hardly fifteen feet in 
width, when the river is the lowest. The most dangerous 
gorge is at the Iron Gate, where the Danube breaks through 
the Transylvanian Alps. In the spring of the yea**, when the 
volume of water in the Danube is greater than can escape 
through the gorges above Roumania, the plain of Hungary 
is apt to suffer from inundation. 

Raumailia; an independent kingdom, is situated between 
Austria, Russia, the Black Sea, and the Danube. It now ex- 
tends to the Black Sea, bu f none of it is east of the Pruth R., 
or north of the Danube. 

It is pre-eminently an agricultural country, and, thanks to 
the law of 1863, giving each head of a family a piece of land 
containing from seven to sixty-seven acres, Roumania is a 
grain exporting country. The fisheries of Roumania are also 
profitable. 


256 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


Bukharest , the capital of Roumanians situated on a small 
tributary of the Danube. Next to Constantinople and Buda- 
Pesth, it is the most populous city in Southeastern Europe. 

When within thirty-eight miles of the Black Sea, tne 
Danube turns to the north, and, after flowing some distance, 
it bends to the east, receives the Pruth R. from the north, and 
reaches the Sea by several channels. “ It annually conveys to 
the Black Sea a volume of water far in excess of that which 
is carried down the rivers of all France, and the solids, which 
it holds in suspension, are sufficient to cover an area of ten 
square miles to a depth of nine feet. This enormous mass of 
sand and clay is annually deposited in the swamps and on the 
banks of the delta, and the slow but steady growth of the 
latter is thus sufficiently explained.” 

Russia. — Review what has been learned already about 
Russia; and in the further study of the country notice that it 
includes most of the lowland of Europe, and comprises more 
than half of the continent. 

The principal water-shed of Russia extends from southwest 
to northeast, the highest part of it Being formed by the Valdai 
Hills in the west. As the water-shed is north of the center, 
the longest rivers flow which way ? 

The climate of Russia, owing to the exposure of the coun- 
try to the polar winds, and its remoteness from the beneficent 
influences of the warm currents of the Atlantic, is very cold. 
The winters are long and severe in all parts of the empire, and 
the ground is covered with several feet of snow five or six 
months in the year, and the rivers are ice-bound. But the 
summers though short, are very hot, as if to compensate for 
the dreariness of winter. 

Russia is an agricultural country, and is by far the largest 
grain producer of Europe, and ranks second among the grain 
growing countries of the world, the United States being the 
first. Owing to the large area of rich agricultural land that 
still remains unoccupied, the immigration of Russia is greater 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


2 57 


than the emigration, which can be said of no other country of 
Europe. The principal grains are rye, oats, wheat and bar- 
ley. In the production of flax and hemp, Russia equals the 
rest of Europe. 

The principal minerals are coal, iron, gold, platinum and 
copper, which are found in the east and south. 

Besides agriculture, the other leading industries are the fish- 
eries and stock-raising. 

The chief manufactures are woolens, silks, linens, cotton, 
metal-wares, soap, glass, paper and porcelain; but manufactur- 
ing cannot be regarded as one of the principal industries of the 
country. 

In addition to the places in Russia, already studied, the fol- 
lowing may be taken: 

Dniester R . 

Odessa , the great emporium of South Russia, on the Black 
vSea, east of the mouth of the Dniester. The principal export 
is grain; but wool, tallow and flax are also exported in large 
quantities. The population is somewhat mixed, but the prin- 
cipal foreign element is the Italian. Pop. 200,000. 

Dnieper , one of the largest rivers of Russia, rises near the 
sources of the Duna and Volga, and flows into the Black Sea. 

Kiev , the “ holy city/’ one of the great historical cities of 
Europe, is situated on the Dnieper, about midway between its 
source and mouth. u It is a place of pilgrimage, and is an- 
nually visited by about 300,000 pilgrims.” 

Crimea , a peninsula, is famous for the Crimean War of 
1 854-5> k eween Russia on the one hand, and Turkey, England, 
F ranee and Sardinia on the other. 

Sebastopol , a strongly fortified city, is situated at the southern 
end of the Crimea. Near it took place the 4 ‘ Charge of the 
Light Brigade.” 

Teni-Kaleh , the strait which connects the Sea of Azov with 
the Black Sea. 

Sea of Azov , a shallow arm of the Black Sea. 


258 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


Don , a navigable river of Russia, flows into the Sea of 
Azov. 

Caucasus , a heavy range of mountains which form a part 
of the boundary between Europe and Asia. Russia extends 
south to Mt. Ararat and the southern bend of the Aras River. 

Georgia is the principal Russian province south of the Cau- 
casus. Its surface is very hilly and broken. 

Tiflis, the capital of Georgia and of all Trans-Caucasia, is 
situated on the Kur R., which flows into the Caspian Sea. 

Volga, the largest river of Europe, rises among the Valdai 
Hills, near the sources of the Duna and Dnieper, and flows 
east and south into the Caspian Sea. 

Astrakhan , an important city of Southeastern Russia, is 
situated on the Volga River. It has some commerce, but is 
especially noted for its fisheries. 

Kazan , the chief city of Eastern Russia, is situated on the 
Volga, a short distance above the mouth of the Kama R. 
Standing as it does at the intersection of the great routes from 
Siberia, the Caspian Sea, and the Baltic, it has an extensive 
trade, and half the population is engaged in trades and manu- 
factures. 

Nizhnee- Novgorod, is a very important city, situated at the 
confluence of the Oka and Volga. It is noted for tne great 
fair held here annually, and lasting eight weeks. The value 
of the goods disposed of at these fairs amounts in some years to 
$100,000,000. The fair begins July 1. 

Oka R. 

Moscow, situated almost in the center of the country, on a 
small tributary of the Oka, is the most famous city of Russia. 
It covers an area of over forty square miles, but is not built 
compactly. It has over 360 churches. The Kremlin, “at once 
a fortress and an aggregate of cathedrals, convents, palaces 
and barracks, is pre-eminently the monument of the Russian 
Empire.” The czars are crowned in one of the cathedrals of 
the Kremlin. 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


2 59 


Moscow is a great center of the book trade, and millions of 
works and prints are issued here, and hawked all over the 
country, or traded for the local produce of the provinces. The 
city was burned in 1812 for the purpose of dislodging the 
French from their winter quarters. Pop. 612,000. 

Source of Volga R. 

Ural R . is on the boundary between Europe and Asia. 

Ural Mts. are also on the boundary between Europe and 
Asia. They are not very high, but consist mainly of several 
“ round-backed plateau shaped masses of land.” 

Arctic Ocean , north of Russia. 

White Sea is an arm of the Arctic. Notice the short dis- 
tance from the White Sea to the Gulf of Finland, and the close 
proximity of their tributaries. 

Archangel , the principal city of Arctic Russia, is situated on 
the Dwina R., twenty miles from its entrance into the White 
Sea. In spite of the ice which suspends all navigation for 
seven months of the year, the city exports considerable flax, 
hemp, oats, timber, resin and tallow. 

Nava ZenTbla, “New Land,” is a large island situated 
north of the eastern part of Russia. Its only inhabitants are a 
few Europeans who care for the permanent harbor of refuge 
established on the Island. 

Franz- Jasepll Land, a cold, barren group of islands, 
situated north of Nova Zembla, and almost entirely beyond 
parallel 80 0 N. The group is not inhabited. 

Spitz'bergEn; a group of islands southwest of Franz-Jos- 
eph Land and north of the North Cape. There are no per- 
manent inhabitants, but the islands are visited during the sum- 
mer by hunters, naturalists and whalers. 


SCHEME FOR THE GENERAL STUDY OF ASIA. 


<D 

A 
(A 

CO 


i Peninsulas. 


2. Capes. 


5. Romania. 

6. Comorin. 
4. Bengal. 


[4. Seas. 


C3 

* 

C/2 


1. Plateaus. 


1. Boundaries. 

1. Length. 

2. Dimensions. -I 2. Width. 

3. Area. 

1. Kamchatka. 4. Hindoostan. 

2. Corea. 5. Arabia. 

3. Malaya. 6. Asia Minor. 

1. Northeast. 4. Cambodia. 

2. East. 

3. Lopatka. 
t 1. Pechili. 

3. Bays or Gulfs. < 2. Tonquin. 5. Persian. 

( 3. Siam. 6. Aden. 
f 1. Behring. 5. East China. 

2. Okhotsk. 6. South China. 

3. Japan. 7. Arabian. 

4. Yellow. 8. Red. 

" 1. Central Asia. 

2. Iran. 

3. Deccan. 

4. Pamir. 

1. Himalayas. 

2. Kuen Lun. 

2. Mountains. 3. Thian Shan. 

4. Altai. 

5. Hindoo Koosh. 

' 1. Siberia. 

2. China. 

3. Basin of the Ganges. 

4. Tigro — Euphrates Basin. 

5. Plains of the Aral and Caspian. 

( 1. Aral. 

5. Lakes. •< 2. Caspian. 

( 3. Baikal. 

1. Obi. 6. Yang-tse-kiang. 

2. Yenisei. 7. Cambodia. 

3. Lena. 8. Menam. 

4. Amoor, 9. Irrawaddy. 

5. Hoang-Ho. 10. Brahmapootra. 

(260) 


o 

03 

MH 

S 1 

C/2 


6. Caucasus. 

7. Sinai. 

8. Lebanon. 

9. Taurus. 


3. Plains. *< 


C/2 

L, 

<D 

> 
• r-H 

VO 


11. Ganges. 

12. Indus. 

13. Euphrates. 

14. Tigris. 

15 . Jordan. 


CHAPTER XVII. 


GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF ASIA; SIBERIA, JAPAN AND 

COREA. 

Boundaries and Dimensions of Asia . — Observe that Asia 
is almost an island. 

It ranks first of the continents in size. 

Its greatest length is about 7,500 miles, its width 5,200 miles, 
and its area 17,000,000 square miles. 

Its population is estimated at 820,000,000. 

The outline of Asia is very irregular, and the irregularities 
are on a grand scale. Its projections afford room for empires, 
and its indentations contain vast seas. 


SurfaGB. — The relief of Asia can be easily learned. Its 
highlands are in the center, and are surrounded by the low- 
lands of the continent. The plateau of Central Asia is the 
largest in the world; it is about as large as Europe. This 
plateau is bounded on the north by the Altai Mountains, which, 
farther to the east take, the names of Yablonoi and Stanovoi, 
on the west by the table-land or mountain knot of Pamir, on 
the southwest by the Himalayas, and on the east by the Yun- 
ling and Great Khingan Mountains. 

It is traversed by several chains of mountains, the principal 
of which are the Kuen Lun and Thian Shan. The average 
elevation of the plateau is 1 2,000 feet. 

The table-land of Iran extends westward from the central 
plateau to the west coast of Asia Minor, the principal part of 
it is east of the Persian Gulf, and is bounded on the north by 
the Hindoo Koosh Mountains. Its average elevation is 5,000 
feet. 


(261) 


262 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


The Deccan is situated on the great peninsula of Hindoo- 
stan. It is bounded on the west by the Western Ghauts, on 
the east by the Eastern Ghauts, and on the north by the Vind- 
hya Mountains. It is trangular in shape and consists mostly 
of rolling prairies. Its population is said to be equal in num- 
ber to that of the United States. 

These mountains and plateaus, as well as others of less im- 
portance, are rich in minerals. The Altai Mountains furnish 
gold; India, Thibet and China, silver. The Malay peninsula 
and adjacent countries are famous for tin, and the three great 
plateaus produce copper and iron. Coal is found in northern 
China; diamonds and some other precious stones in Hindoo- 
stan and other parts. 

Forests, — The southern part of Asia is in the main well 
supplied with forests; the most luxuriant, however, are found 
east of the Bay of Bengal. 

The palms are the most numerous trees, but teak, rosewood, 
ebony, gutta-percha and many other valuable trees are found 
in abundance. The betel plant whose leaves are so univer- 
sally chewed in Southeastern Asia, with the nut of a species 
of palm and a little shell lime, is plentiful; also the medicinal 
plants, spices, and dye woods are very valuable. 

These forests are the homes of the lion, tiger, elephant, 
rhinoceros and other wild animals. The varieties of those 
animals that are found in Asia are larger, stronger and fiercer 
than those found in other continents. 

SfbEria, — The great plain which extends from the Altai 
Mountains to the Arctic Ocean, and from the Ural Mountains 
to Behring Strait is known by the name of Siberia. It is a 
cold, dreary region facing the north pole, and is inhabited by 
uncivilized, wandering tribes, and by convicts and political oR 
fenders exiled from Russia. 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


263 


A few of the hardier grains and vegetables grow in the 
valleys of the south, but the northern part of the country is a 
barren waste, frozen to unknown depths, and never thawing 
more than a few inches in the short, hot summer. These 
frozen plains are frequently called Tundras, Mining and 
hunting are the leading occupations of the people. 

If we start from the northwest corner of Siberia and travel 
east we come to the 

Gulf of Obi, 

Obi River, 

Irtish River, 

Tobolsk , at the junction of the Tobol and Irtish Rivers, is 
the capital of West Siberia. The cold is frequently so great 
that the mercury freezes. 

Yenisei River , 2,500 miles in length, flows most of the way 
through a frozen desert. 

Irkoutsk , the largest city of Siberia, capital of East Siberia, 
and the great center of commerce of northeastern Asia, is sit- 
uated on the 

Angara River, This river is the outlet of 

Lake Baikal , which is the largest body of fresh water in 
Asia; it is about twice the size of Lake Ontario. 

Northeast Cape , the most northern point of Asia. 

Lena River , one of the great rivers of the world, is five or 
six miles wide at a distance of 800 miles from its mouth. It 
was along its banks that so many of the “De Long party” 
perished a few years since. 

Yakoutsk , the commercial center of East Siberia, is noted 
for its trade in fossil ivory, and the fur of the polar fox. It is 
said to be the coldest city in the world. 

Behring Strait , 36 miles wide. 

Behring Sea, Kamchatka Peninsula, 

Aleutian Islands , a chain of islands extending from Asia to 
America, and belonging to the United States. They furnish 


264 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


annually about two-thirds of the sea-otter skins used in the 
world, besides large quantities of seal skins and other furs. 

Cape Lopatka . 

Kurile Islands , a chain of islands extending south from 
Cape Lopatka to Japan. 

Sea of Okhotsk. Saghalien Island . Gulf of Tartar y . 

Amoor River separates Siberia, in part, from the Chinese 
Empire. 

Sketch the northern and eastern coasts of Siberia, and on 
the sketch show all places studied. 

Japan. — The Empire of Japan consists of nearly 4,000 
islands. It has an area three times that of Illinois, and a pop- 
ulation ten times as large. The three principal islands are 

Teddo , of which Hakodate is the principal city open to for- 
eigners; 

Niphon , on which are Tokio , the capital, and Yokohama , 
the principal sea port; and 

Kiushiu , whose principal city is Nagasaki. 

Tokio , the capital of the empire, is situated on the island of 
Niphon, in about the same latitude as Cape Hatteras. Popu- 
lation about 800,000. 

Japan may justly be termed a mountainous country. Some 
of the mountains are over 14,000 feet in height. There are 
several volcanoes, of which Fusiyama is the principal one. 
Much of the surface is unfit for cultivation on account of its 
rugged nature; some of the mountains abound in gold, silver, 
copper, and coal. 

The climate is semi-tropical, consequently the vegetation is 
luxuriant in the lowlands. The principal productions are rice, 
cotton, tea, wheat, barley, Indian corn and silk. 

The last third of a century has witnessed great changes in 
Japan. Previous to that no foreigners were allowed in the 
country except the Dutch, and they were confined to a few 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


265 


square rods at one of the ports; now nearly all of the sea-ports, 
and many of the cities of the interior are open to all. 

Beyond these cities, however, they must not go farther than 
the distance stipulated in the treaties, without permission from 
the proper authorities. The people are friendly to foreigners, 
and desirous of adopting the best features of the civilizations 
of the most enlightened nations, and fitting them to the condi- 
tion of their own country. Many of the young men are sent to 
America and Europe to be educated, and often to learn trades 
which they are expected to teach their countrymen afterwards. 
Education is receiving much attention, and is being conducted 
largely by teachers from the United States, England, France 
and Germany. 

Common schools are established; and colleges and normal 
schools are founded. 

The principal normal school for women is under the imme- 
diate protection of the Empress. Much, also, is being done 
both for religion and education, by missionaries who are zeal- 
ously and successfully planting school houses and churches 
among the people. 

Railroads and telegraphs are in operation, and the conveni- 
ence of the telephone is appreciated. Expositions and fairs 
are common, and their influence upon the industries of the 
country is marked. 

Notwithstanding the rapid progress of the nation in the arts 
and manufactures of the west, many of the old customs still 
prevail, especially in the interior. The straw cloak and head- 
dress, worn in wet weather, and making the wearer look like 
a moving straw stack, are common sights; the married women 
still stain their teeth black to please their husbands, and both 
married and unmarried women dress their hair in such an 
elaborate manner as to necessitate the using of a block of 
wood for a pillow, in order that one dressing may answer 

for several days. The neck rests on the pillow and the head 
“hangs over.” 


266 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


Note: If the hoys and girls wish to know more of Japan 

and its people, let them read “The Boy Travellers in the Far 
' East.” 

Cnrsa.- — The Kingdom of Corea occupies the peninsula of 
that name and a small portion of the continent to which it is 
joined Both China and Japan lay claim to the sovereignty 
of the nation. The people prefer China, and acknowledge its 
sway by the payment of a merely nominal tribute; but the 
king of Corea is virtually independent. The kingdom is fre- 
quently called “the hermit kingdom,” because of its exclusion 
of foreigners. The country has been opened recently to 
foreign intercourse by treaty with America. 

The surface is mountainous in the north and east. Barley 
is the only profitable crop in the north; cotton, hemp, flax, 
tobacco, madder, and indigo are produced in the south. Corean 
ginseng is the most valuable in the world. Gold, silver, coal, 
sulphur, arsenic, lead, tin and iron are plentiful; but the min- 
ing of the precious metals is forbidden on pain of death. The 
raising of sheep is also unlawful. 

The cart is the principal wheeled vehicle in use; bulls and 
ponies are used as pack animals. The wealthy travel on horse 
back and in Sedan chairs. 

The houses of the peasants are huts with mud walls and 
floors and thatched roofs; the wealthy live in houses made of 
wood. 

Cotton and linen goods form the clothing of the people; 
sandals made of straw or twine, with soles of rawhides, are 
worn by all classes. 

The population is estimated at 11,000,000; King-ki-Tao is 
the capital. 


CHAPTER XVIII. 


CHINA, ANAM, CAMBODIA, SIAM, AND BURMAH. 

Bound the Chinese Empire, naming, in order, the seas that 
wash its shores. 

SurfELCB. — The surface of China is low in the east, hilly 
in the center, and mountainous in the west. The basins of the 
three great rivers — Hoang-Ho,Yang-tse-Kiang, and Si-Kiang 
extend through the empire from west to east, and with the 
mountain systems which separate them, comprise nearly the 
whole of the country; the mountains are rich in gold, silver, 
copper, lead, iron and coal. 

Parts cf the Empire. — The empire consists of China 
Proper, Manchuria, Mongolia, Eastern Turkestan and Thibet. 
It is estimated to contain 4,550,000 square miles, and a popula- 
tion of 379,680,000. It should be remembered that these are 
estimates; the exact numbers are not known. 

China Proper is the only division of the country that de- 
serves much attention at our hands. It contains about one- 
third of the area and four-fifths of the population. It is di- 
vided into nineteen Provinces, and these are subdivided into 
Prefectures, or Counties, and these in turn are divided into 
smaller divisions corresponding to our Townships. It is 
claimed that this portion of the empire has 1,000 walled 
towns. 

Manchuria is a region of hills and plateaus, with some fer- 
tile prairies. Agriculture is carried on to some extent, but 
grazing is the principal occupation of the people. 

(267) 


268 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


Mongolia , Eastern Turkestan and Thibet are situated on 
the great plateau of Central Asia. They are dry, sterile re- 
gions, unfit for agriculture, except a few sheltered valleys. 
Most of the inhabitants are nomadic in their habits, roaming 
over the country as the necessities of their flocks and herds de- 
mand. 

ClimatB and CrnpSi — A glance at the map will show 
that China is in about the same latitude as the United States. 
The climate is colder than ours on the same parallel, and sub- 
ject to more sudden changes. 

In northern China, wheat, millet, buckwheat, Indian corn, 
Irish potatoes and cabbages are cultivated. Excellent cotton 
is produced in large quantities. In southern China, rice, 
sugar-cane and the tropical fruits abound. Tea and silk are 
among the leading productions of the country, and form its 
principal exports. Millet and rice are the main articles of 
food. 

Customs and Habits. — The Chinese are a peculiar 
people, and differ very much from Americans in their customs 
and habits. 

“When two Chinamen meet, instead of shaking hands with 
each other, they stand at a distance, and each one shakes his 
own hands, putting them together and making a churning 
motion. It is not respectful to take off the hat on going into 
the house of a stranger; but a stranger, on being introduced 
to you considers it a mark of politeness to inquire your age. 

“The Chinese never use a pen in writing, but a soft brush 
instead. * * * The ink is kept in a hard cake, and rubbed 

on a stone with water as it is wanted. A Chinese book 
begins at the back side, and instead of the lines going across 
the page horizontally, the first line runs down at the right 
hand side of the page to the bottom, and then commences at 
the left of this, and so on until the page is full. 


I 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 269 

“In Chinese schools there are no questions and answers as 
with us, but the pupil commits a given lesson to memory, and 
when the time comes for recitation, walks out on the floor, 
directly in front of* the teacher, either singly or in class, faces 
about with his back to the teacher, and then rattles off the 
lesson at railroad speed. 

“White is worn as mourning, and must not be seen at a 
wedding. * * * The greatest possible revenge is for a 

man to kill himself, as a means of punishing the one who has 
wronged him. It is considered very praiseworthy and meri- 
torious for a wife, on the decease of her husband, to hang her- 
self.”* 

One of the most injurious habits of the Chinese is their use 
of opium. This drug is made from the poppy which is culti- 
vated extensively in China and Hindoostan. 

Peking , the capital and metropolis of China, is situated on 
the Pei-Ho River, nearly in latitude 40° N. In size it ranks 
with Berlin, Vienna and New York, its population being not 
far from 1,250,000. 

Peking is surrounded by a wall twenty* five miles in circum- 
ference, and sixty feet high. The city is divided into two 
parts by a substantial wall which separates the southern or 
commercial city from the northern or imperial city. The 
I northern city has wide streets; but the southern, narrow and 
filthy. The most of the houses are only one story high; the 
floor is of earth or brick, the windows of oiled paper. It may 
be profitable to remember that this city is in about the same 
latitude as the capitals of Spain, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, 
West Virginia, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois and Colorado. 

Hoang-Ho , “Yellow River,” one of the principal rivers of 

China, noted for the frequency with which it has changed its 
bed in its lower course. 

Yellow Sea . 


♦“Letters from Asia”— Bishop Kingsley. 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


270 

Yang-tse-Kiang , “son of the sea,?’ one of the great rivers of 
the world, ranks with the Mississippi and Amazon. It rises 
in Kuen Lun Mountains and drains an area of 750,000 square 
miles; its basin is estimated to contain a population of 175,000,* 
000, or three and a half times that of the United States. It 
is 2,900 miles in length; and at a distanse of 200 miles from its 
mouth is five miles wide. 

Nan 'King, situated near the right bank of the Yang-tse- 
Kiang River is noted for the manufacture of satin, paper, and 
the variety of cloth to which it has given its name. 

S hang- Hai, an important commercial city. 

East China Sea. 

Fuh Chau is noted for the manufacture of porcelain, its 
lead mines, and trade in black tea. 

Formosa Island , noted for its exports of rice, camphor, coal, 
and tea. 

Fokien Strait , or Channel of Formosa. 

A?noy , a city of Southeastern China, exports tea, camphor, 
sugar and joss-paper. 

Hong -Kong, more properly Victoria, a city situated on the 
island of Hong-Kong, is one of the great centers of foreign 
trade in China; both island and city belong to Great Britain. 

Canton , the principal city of Southern China, and the com- 
mercial emporium of the nation, is situated on Canton, or Pearl 
River. Its streets average seven or eight feet in width; and 

100.000 of the inhabitants live in house-boats on the river. 
Canton employs 50,000 persons in the manufacture of cloth, 

17.000 of whom are engaged in silk weaving. Population 
nearly equal to that of Peking. 

Si-Kiang , or Hong-Kiang River . 

Macao , a sea port town belonging to the Portuguese, is at 
the mouth of the Canton River. 

Hainan Island belongs to China; its products are sugar, 
pearls, coral, wax, gold and silver. 

Gulf of Tonquin . South China Sea. 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


271 


Inda- China, — The countries of Anam, Cambodia, Siam, 
and Burmah, being situated between India and China, and 
partaking of the nature of both, frequently are spoken of col- 
lectively as Indo-China. 

Anam consists of three provinces, Tonquin, Cochin China, 
and Lower Cochin China. The last belongs to the French, 
who at present claim a protectorate over the whole kingdom. 
China resisted the attempts of the French upon Tonquin, and 
although war was not declared, there were several battles in 
which the Chinese suffered defeat. 

Hue , the capital of Anam. 

Saigon, the capital of Lower Cochin China. 

Cape Cambodia. 

Cambodia , or Mekong River, forms the boundary, in part, 
between Anam and Siam. 

Cambodia is a small country in the southeastern part of 
Asia, having for its capital, Panompin which consists largely 
of bamboo huts. 

I Gulf of Siam . 

Siam is the principal kingdom of Indo-China, it has an area 
of 300,000 square miles, and a population of 6,000,000. The 
seasons are, a wet or hot season, and a dry or cool one. The 
mercury does not often fall below 6o° Fahr. Vegetation is 
luxuriant and plentiful: the forests cover at least one-half of 
the area; they abound in many valuable woods and herbs. 

Rice, sugar, pepper, cotton and hemp are the chief produc- 
tions. 

Menam River , principal river of Siam. 

Bangkok , the capital of Siam, extends four or five miles 
along both banks of the Menam River. The majority of the 
houses are either built upon rafts floating in the river, or on 
piles driven along the banks; hence the city’s name of the 
“Venice of the East.” 

Singapore , “Town of Lions,” is said to have represented 
on its streets all nationalities ; ships can be found here loading 


272 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


for all parts of the world with spices, rattan, oil, etc. “It is a 
coaling station for the men-of-war of all nations; in it are stored 
for future distribution the staple products of America, Europe, 
and Asia.” Vegetation is always in the full bloom of sum- 
mer. 

Malay Peninsula , a long, narrow strip of land, belonging 
to Great Britain, Siam, and a few native princes. 

Cape Romania , the southern point of the Malay Peninsula 
and of Asia. 

Malacca , strait separating the Island of Sumatra from the 
Malay Peninsula. 

Bay of Be?igal. 

British BurmaJi , or Pegu , a country situated along the 
western coast of Indo-China; it is washed by the Bay of Ben- 
gal. 

Irrawaddy River , one of the great rivers of Asia, rises in 
Thibet, and flows south into the Bay of Bengal. Near its 
source is the greatest annual rain fall of any place in the world; 
it is said to be fifcy feet, or sixteen times that in Chicago. 

Rangoon , the capital of British Burmah, situated on the Ir- 
rawaddy, has a very extensive trade in rice, petroleum, cotton, 
and teak timber. 

Burmah is the northwestern kingdom of the Indo-China 
group; it has an area of 200,000 square miles, and a popula- 
tion of 3,000,000. The country is well fitted for agriculture, 
which is carried on in a very primitive manner. But, owing 
to the great fertility of the soil, large quantities of rice, maize, 
millet, wheat, tobacco, cotton and indigo are produced. Man- 
goes, pine-apples, oranges, custard apples, and papaws are the 
principal fruits. 

The capital of Burmah is Mandalay , or Mandaleh , most of 
the houses of which are made of bamboos and mats, and 
thatched with grass; foreigners only are allowed to live in 
brick houses. 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 2 73 

Note: A good description of the countries of Irido-China 

is found in Vincent’s “Land of the White Elephant,” and in 
Knox’s “Boy Travellers in the Far East.” Both give a full 
and pleasing account of the customs, habits and manners of 
the people. 


CHAPTER XIX. 


INDIA, BELOOCHISTAN, AFGHANISTAN, TURKESTAN, AND 

PERSIA. 

Boundaries and Bimensinns. — India consists of the 
central one of the three great peninsulas that project south- 
ward from the mainland of Asia, and a narrow strip of coun- 
try along the east side of the Bay of Bengal. 

India, or Hindoostan, is 2,000 miles from north to south, and 
1900 miles from east to west. It has an area of 1,577,699 sq. 
mi., and a population of 240,000,000, being equal in both area 
and population to all of Europe, excepting Russia. 

Surface. — The surface of India consists of the basins of 
the Ganges and Indus, and the table-land of the Deccan; the 
latter has been described already. From Calcutta up the val- 
ley of the Ganges for fifteen hundred miles the country is very 
level. The Himalayas rise abruptly out of the plain of the 
Ganges; in these mountains isMt. Everest, 29,000 ft., the highest 
land in the world. The valley of the Indus, though much 
smaller than that of the Ganges, embraces a vast area. 

Cultivation and Crcps. — Where the nature of the 
* land admits of it, India is carefully cultivated. The great 
population renders it necessary that, as far as possible, every 
square foot shall be made productive, hence there are no fences 
to be seen anywhere in the country. 

The peasants, or tillers of the soil, do not live in scattered 
farm houses as in America, but in villages or hamlets. The 
houses of the poor are constructed of mud, and have no doors 
or windows towards the street. 

The soil produces two crops a year. Rice, Indian corn, 

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ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


2 75 


sugar-cane, cotton, and indigo, grow in the summer; wheat, 
potatoes, oats, barley and cabbage, in the winter. 

Government, — India should not be regarded as one na- 
tion, but as a number of nations loosely tied together. 
Twenty-three different languages are spoken within its bor- 
ders, and many religious beliefs and forms of civilization exist. 
The English, though comparatively few in number, are the 
ruling race. They have arranged the provinces, both those 
in which they hold absolute sway and those governed by 
tributary, native princes, into six groups for administrative 
purposes. These are the Presidencies of Madras, Bombay, 
Bengal, Northwestern Provinces, Punjab, and the Central 
Provinces, all of which are governed by a governor-general, 
who is appointed by the British Government. 

Carefully locate and study the following places: 

Brahmapootra , one of the chief rivers of Asia, rises north of 
the Himalayas, flows southeast through Thibet, and then south- 
west into the Bay of Bengal. 

Thibet , a cold, dreary plateau forming a part of the Chinese 
Empire. 

Lassa , the capital of Thibet, and the sacred city of the Bud- 
dhists. Here is the residence of the Grand Lama, who is the 
earthly head of Buddhism. Its latitude is about the same as 
that of Cairo and New Orleans, but its climate is fully as severe 
as that of St. Petersburg. Why? 

Ganges i?., the sacred river of the Hindoos, has its source 
in the Himalayas at an elevation of 13,000 feet. The lowlands 
at the mouths of the Ganges and Brahmapootra are called the 
Sunderbunds. The river overflows its banks everv summer, 
and floods the lowlands along its borders to a width of ioo 
miles. The villages are kept from being inundated by being 
built on artificial elevations. 

Hoogly i?., the principal one of the many mouths of the 
Ganges, and the one most important to commerce. 


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ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


Calcutta , the capital and largest city of India, is situated on 
the Hoogly R. ; being the natural outlet for the great basins 
of the Ganges and Brahmapootra, it has a very extensive com- 
merce. The principal exports are rice, opium, indigo, cotton, 
raw silk, etc. The streets in the native portion of the city 
are narrow and crooked, and the houses are small and filthy. 
The foreign part has wide, well-paved streets, and spacious 
dwellings. Population about 1,000,000. 

Benares , the sacred city of the Hindoos, and the center of 
Brahminical learning and religion, is situated on the Ganges 
R. Among its many temples is a large and costly one de- 
voted wholly to the use of monkeys. 

Jumna R , the principal tributary of the Ganges. 

Allahabad , “ the city of God.” is situated at the junction of 
the Ganges and Jumna. It is noted for the great Melas , or 
religious gatherings, frequently held there and generally at- 
tended by over a million people. 

Delhi , the center of Mohammedan learning and religion 
in India, is situated on the Jumna R.; it was formerly the cap- 
ital of the empire of the “ Great Moguls,” and was noted for its 
great wealth and splendor. 

Agra , a city on the Jumna R., contains the Taj Mahal, the 
most beautiful building on the earth. The building “ looks 
like a tent of snowy whiteness and rich embroidery let down 
from heaven into a paradise of earth to be the audience cham- 
ber of an angel on an errand of mercy to men.” 

Eastern Ghauts form the eastern border of the Deccan Pla- 
tean. 

Godavery i?., rises on the east side of Western Ghauts, and 
flows into the Bay of Bengal. On one of its southern tribut- 
aries is 

Golconda , noted in the past for its diamond mines. 

Madras , one of the principal cities of India, is situated on 
the Coromandel coast. 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


277 


Pondicherry ; this city and a small tract of adjoining country 
belong to France. 

Palk Strait separates Ceylon from the mainland. 

Ceylon , a large island south of Hindoostan, belongs to Great 
Britain. 

The cocoa-nut palms are very abundant on the island, and 
are to the people, food, drink and clothing; the bread-fruit and 
cinnamon tree grow here, and the nutmeg finds here its “ nat- 
ive land.” Coffee is at present one of the staple productions of 
Ceylon, and pearl fisheries are carried on along its shores. 

Cape Comorin , the southern point of Hindoostan. 

Western Ghauts , form the western border of the Deccan 
Plateau. 

Goa / this city and a small portion of the adjoining country 
belong to Portugal. 

Bombay , a large city of India, is situated on the Malabar 
coast; it is next to Calcutta in population and commercial im- 
portance; here is a colony of Parsees, or fire-worshipers. 

Gulf of Cambay . 

Surat is an important city on the Gulf of Cambay. 

Vindhya Mis . form the northern border of the Deccan ; the 
northern slopes of these mountains are the great poppy-fields 
of India. 

Arabian Sea . 

Indus i?., one of the great rivers of India, rises on the north 
side of the Himalayas, near the source of the Brahmapootra, 
and flows at first northwest, then southwest into the Arabian 
Sea. 

Sutlej /?., the principal tributary of the Indus. 

Cashmere , a small country, about the size of Connecticut, is 
situated on the southern slopes of the Himalayas, between the 
Indus and Sutlej Rivers. The country is governed by a na- 
tive prince, under the protection of Great Britain; it is noted 
for its shawls. Capital, Cashmere. 

Make a sketch of India, and on it show all the mountains, 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 




278 


rivers and cities mentioned in the text. If this work is to be 
made valuable, the sketching must be faithfully attended to. 

Beloochistan , — “the land of the Beloocbees,” is a moun- 
tainous country west of India, and occupies the southeast 
corner of the table-land of Iran. 

The climate and productions vary with the elevation. In 
the low, hot plains rice, sugar-cane, cotton, and tobacco are 
produced; while in other parts wheat, barley, madder, melons, 
pomegranates and asafetida are the principal productions. 

The people are not very highly civilized, but understand 
some of the ruder arts and manufactures. They live in tribes, 
each subject to its own chief, and all subject to the “Great 
Khan of Kelat,” whose rule is absolute. 

The capital is Kelat. 

Afghanistan , — “the land of the Afghans,” is a country 
north of Beloochistan, which country it so closely resembles 
that no separate description is necessary. The people are 
very brave, as was shown recently by the resistance they of- 
fered to Great Britain, which had invaded their country. In 
the northern part, the Hindoo Koosh, a great chain of moun- 
tains, extends westward from the Kuen Lun Mts. The capi- 
tal is Cabool. 

Independent Turkestan , — “the land of the Turks,” is a 
country lying north of Afghanistan and Persia. Russia has 
recently added all of this country to its own domain, and is 
now encroaching upon Afghanistan. On the east the country 
is separated from Chinese Turkestan by the table-land of 
Pamir. The people, customs, and productions of the country 
resemble those of Beloochistan and Afghanistan. 

Aral Sea. 

Amoo R ., the principal river of Turkestan, flows into the 
Aral Sea. 

Bokhara , nominally the capital of Turkestan. 

Samarkand was the capital of Tamerlane’s famous empire, 
and contains his tomb. 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


279 


Persia is mainly on the plateau of Iran. 

Owing to its elevation, the greater part of Persia has a very 
cold climate in winter, while the lowland along the Persian 
Gulf has an excessively hot climate in summer. A glance at 
the map will show that there are no rivers of importance in 
the country, lack of water being one of the great drawbacks 
to the nation’s prosperity. The principal productions are rice, 
indigo, madder and tobacco. 

The commerce of Persia is considerable, and is carried on 
largely by means of caravans. 

Teheran is the capital. 

Strait of Ormuz connects the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea. 

Persian Gulf, situated between Persia and Arabia, has val- 
uable pearl fisheries. 





CHAPTER XX. 


ASIATIC TURKEY. 

Divisions . — Asiatic Turkey may, for convenience, be divid- 

•/ * 

ed into the Tigro-Euphrates Basin, Arabia, Syria, Asia Minor 
and Armenia. 

The basin of the Tigro-Euphrates was the seat of the famous 
kingdoms of Babylon and Assyria. The land was irrigated 
by means of canals and aqueducts, and was brought to a high 
state of cultivation. But the glory of Babylon and Assyria has 
departed, the canals and irrigating ditches have been in ruins 
so long that the location of only a few of them can be fixed. 
The land is a desert, the home of wild beasts and of a few 
semi-civilized Arabs. 

^ hat-el- Arab, a river formed by the junction of the Tigris 
and Euphrates, flows into the north end of the Persian Gulf. 

Euphrates , the principal river of Asiatic Turkey, rises in 
the neighborhood of Mt. Ararat, flows at first south of west 
and then southeast until it helps form the Shat-el-Arab. 

Ruins of Babyloit are situated on the Euphrates. But lit- 
tle is left to mark the site of the once famous Babylon. The 
city stood on both sides of the river, was in the form of a 
square, and surrounded by a wall sixty miles in length, three 
hundred and fifty feet high, and eighty-seven feet thick at the 
top; it was entered by twenty-five gates on each side. Within 
were the hanging gardens and the supposed site ofthe“Tower 
of Babel.” 

Ararat , a famous mountain of Armenia, is at the junction of 
Turkey, Russia and Persia, and partly in each; is the sup- 
posed site of the landing of the ark. 

Tigris , the second in importance of the rivers of Asiatic 

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ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


281 


Turkey, rises south of the Euphrates, and unites with it to 
form the Shat-el-Arab. Many believe that at the junction of 
these rivers was the Garden of Eden. 

Bagdad , formerly the capital of the empire of the Caliphs, 
was for many years the center of commerce for all the sur- 
rounding countries. 

Ruins of Nineveh are situated on the Tigris. The site of 
this once famous city, the capital of the great Assyrian empire, 
was discovered in the present century. The Rawlinsons are 
making known to the world much of the history of Nineveh, 
by deciphering the inscriptions found on bricks, stones and 
walls. 

Mesopotamia , “between the rivers,” a name frequently 
given to the land between the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers. 

Kv atria, the most western of the great peninsulas that ex- 
tend southward from Asia, is bounded on the north by Syria. 

Surface . Parallel to the coast, and a short distance from it 
are ranges of low, barren mountains. Hemmed in by these 
mountains are extensive, sandy deserts, dotted by a few small 
oases; encompassed by these deserts, and forming the heart of 
the great peninsula is the Nedjed, or fertile land. 

A glance at the map will tell us of the scarcity of water, as 
we find no rivers or lakes of importance in the country. Ar- 
tificial ponds are constructed, also tanks, in which to save as 
much of the scanty rainfall as possible, for irrigating purposes. 

Productions . — The larger part of the arable land is devoted 
to the cultivation of the date palm. The date constitutes the 
principal article of food on the peninsula, and is also shipped 
to foreign markets. Next in importance is coffee, which is 
cultivated extensively, both for home and foreign use; it is of a 
superior quality, and known in the market as “Mocha” coffee. 
Peaches, apricots and pomegranates are produced in large 
quantities; millet is the principal grain 


282 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


The pearl fisheries of Arabia are very valuable; the island 
of Bahrein in the Persian Gulf is the center of the industry. 

The horses of Arabia are noted especially for their beauty 
and endurance, and are prized highly by their owners. The 
camel is the most useful animal of the peninsula; the swiftest 
and most docile variety is known as the dromedary which is 
kept for riding purposes, for it is able to go six or eight days 
without water. The ostrich is the most remarkable bird in the 
country, and is a source of revenue to the Bedouins. 

Government . — The people of Arabia may be divided into 
two classes, — the Bedouins, who live a nomadic life and de- 
pend upon their flocks and herds for a livelihood, and the fixed 
Arabs who live a settled life, till the soil, and build cities. 

The peninsula is occupied by several tribes, each having its 
own chief who is styled Emir, Imam, Shereef, or Sultan, ac- 
cording to his power. There are at present three Sultans 
who are recognized as superior in power to the others, and 
their dominions are sometimes called kingdoms. A narrow 
strip along the Red Sea is the only part of Arabia that ac- 
knowledges the Turkish rule, although the rulers of the other 
portions of the peninsula send presents every year to the Sul- 
tan of Turkey. 

Muscat , the capital of Oman, is at the entrance to the Per- 
sian Gulf. 

Aden , a city in the southwestern part of Arabia, is on the 
Gulf of Aden; it belongs to Great Britain, and commands the 
south entrance to the Red Sea. 

Strait of Bab-el- Mandeb, “the gate of tears.” 

Mocha , a city on the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, noted for its 
export of coffee. 

Mecca , the sacred city of Mohammedanism, is in the wes- 
tern part of Arabia some distance from the coast. It is the 
birthplace of Mohammed, and all good Mohammedans pray 
with their faces towards Mecca. In order that no mistake 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


2S3 


may be made, all Mosques are built with a niche in the side 
that is towards the sacred city. 

Medina , north of Mecca, is the burial place of Mohammed. 

Sinaitic Peninsula , situated between the two horns of the 
Red Sea, is a barren region covered with naked rocks and Al- 
pine precipices, and intersected by narrow defiles and sandy 
valleys, or “wadies.” Its importance is due to its association 
with the history of the Jews. On it Moses received the Ten 
Commandments, and organized the Jewish Church. 

Gulf of Suez , the northwestern horn of the Red Sea; it is 
believed that this is the part of the Sea, crossed by Moses and 
the Israelites in their exodus from Egypt; it is connected with 
the Mediterranean Sea by the Suez canal. 

Syria. — The country bordering on the east end of the 
Mediterranean Sea, and extending eastward to the Tigro- 
Euphrates Basin, is known by the name of Syria. In ancient 
times it was divided into Palestine , Phoenicia and Syria 
Proper. 

Palestine extended northward from Arabia along the Medi- 
terranean about two-fifths of its width. Phoenicia joined 
Palestine on the north, and extended north an equal distance. 
Syria Proper was north and east of Phoenicia, reaching north 
to the Gulf of Iskenderoon, and east to the valley of the 
Euphrates. 

Modern Syria is of comparatively little value to the world. 
The mildew that has blighted all lands over which the Turk 
holds sway has not spared this. Hence, it is advisable that 
more time be given to the geography of Syria as it was, than 
to that of Syria as it is. It has a history ; and, since that his- 
tory has modified and largely determined the history of the 
nations of Christendom, the leading geographical features of 
the country should be noticed. 

FalEStinE is the southern division of Syria, and is situated 


284 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


on both sides of the Jordan River. It consists of a great table 
land which extends through its entire length, and two narrow 
strips of lowland; one of these is along the Mediterranean, the 
other is the narrow valley of the Jordan. 

The geography of Palestine is studied so much in con- 
nection with Sunday School work, that but few facts and 
places need be mentioned here; the following ones are sug- 
gested : 

Jordan, the principal river of Palestine, and the one of all 
the rivers of the world whose name is most widely known, 
rises among the Anti-Lebanon Mts., and flows south through 
the Sea of Galilee into the Dead Sea. 

Sea of Galilee , an expansion of the Jordan River, about 
thirteen miles long and half as wide. 

Dead Sea , a lake or inland sea, that forms a part of the east- 
ern boundary of Palestine. It has no outlet, hence its waters 
are salt. The surface of the Dead Sea is 1300 feet below that 
of the Mediterranean. 

Jerusalem, the capital of Palestine, and the sacred city of 
the Jews, is situated on the highest part of the great table- 
land, west from the north end of the Dead Sea. It is noted for 
the great events that took place there in connection with the 
Jewish and Christian religions, especially the death of Christ. 

Bethlehem, “the house of bread,” a small town six miles 
south of Jerusulem, is noted as being the birthplace of Christ. 

Hebron is twenty miles south of Jerusalem, and was the 
home of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. 

Joppa, the seaport of Jerusalem, is on the Mediterranean. 

Gaza, the capital and stronghold of the Philistines, is situ- 
ated in the southwestern part of Palestine. 

Carmel, a mountain which formed part of the boundary be- 
tween Galilee and Samaria. 

Kishon is the principal river of Palestine, that reaches the 
Mediterranean Sea. 

Jezreel, an important city near the source of the Kishon. 




ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 285 

Nazareth , a small town of Northern Palestine, is noted for 
being the home of Jesus. 

FhDEIlicia was a long, narrow strip of country bordering 
on the Mediterranean Sea, and bounded on the east by the 
Lebanon Mts. 

The Phoenicians were famous navigators and great colon- 
izers; they were the inventors of the alphabet. 

Tyre , a celebrated city of antiquity, is situated on the shores 
of the Mediterranean. It was a great commercial emporium, 
but now consists of a village containing about 3,000 inhabit- 
ants. 

Sidon , an ancient city of great note, situated north of Tyre. 
It is of no importance at present. 

Beyroot , an important sea port, is situated in what was for- 
merly Phoenicia. It is a thriving, busy city, and has an ex- 
tensive commerce. 

Lebanon , a celebrated range of mountains forming the east- 
ern boundary of Phoenicia, and noted for its cedars. 

Anti-Lebanon , a range of mountains extending north and 
south, parallel with the Lebanon range, and east of it. At its 
south end is Mt. Hermon, the supposed scene of the Trans- 
figuration. 

Antioch , the ancient capital of Syria, is situated on the 
Orontes River. It was here that the followers of Christ were 
first called Christians. 

Alej)fo , an important city of Syria, was formerly a great 
center of trade between Europe and the East. 

Damascus , the largest city of Asiatic Turkey, is situated on 
a beautiful plain at the east base of the Anti-Lebanon Mts. 
It has a very large caravan trade, and is connected with Bey- 
root by a good road. It is said to be the oldest city in exist- 
ence. Pop. 150,000. 

ilsia Minor is a large peninsula at the western ex- 


286 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


tremity of Asia. It projects westward, forming an exception 
to the general rule. 

Let the bodies of water by which it is washed be named in 
order; they were learned when Europe was studied. 

The surface consists of a high plateau, bounded on the north 
and south by narrow strips of lowland, and on the west by a 
low plain of considerable width. The plateau is traversed by 
several ranges of mountains, of which the Taurus is the 
principal one. 

The climate depends mainly on the elevation. On the ta- 
ble-lands it is very cold in winter; on the plains of the north 
and west it is temperate, while in the valleys of the south it is 
excessively hot in summer. 

Agriculture is in a very backward state. It is carried on 
now as it was two hundred years ago. The people seem to be 
satisfied with their lot, although it is a hard one, and make no 
attempts at improvement. They are nearly all Mohamme- 
dans. 

The principal productions are wheat, millet, cotton, wine, 
olives, silk, and tobacco. 

Cyprus , an island in the northeast corner of the Mediter- 
ranean Sea, belongs to Turkey, but has been leased by Great 
Britain for a long term of years. 

Rhodes , an island at the southwest corner of Asia Minor; 
it is noted for the “Colossus of Rhodes.” 

Scio , ancient Chios, an island on the west coast of Asia Mi- 
nor. 

Smyrna , the principal city of Asia Minor, is situated on the 
west coast. South of it is the site of Ephesus, and a little to 
the northeast is the site of Sardis. 

Dardanelles . South of the west end of this strait is the 
supposed site of Troy. 

Marmora . Bosporus . Black Sea . 

Halys , the principal river of Asia Minor. 




ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 28 7 

Erebizond , an important city, is situated in the northeastern 
part of Asia Minor, on the Black Sea. 

Armenia is a mountainous country lying east of Asia 
Minor. The most of it belongs to Turkey, but parts of it 
have been annexed to the dominions of Persia and Russia. 

Ararat , highest mountain of Armenia, is a point of contact 
of Turkey, Persia and Russia. 

Erzeroum , the only city of importance in Armenia, is situa- 
ted on a branch of the Euphrates River. 



% 


CHAPTER XXL 


AFRICA. 

Africa is situated southwest of Asia, to which it is connected 
by the Isthmus of Suez. It is the second of the continents in 
respect to size, but it is the least of all in importance. 

It bears a marked resemblance to South America, in form. 
Its coastline is more regular even than that of South America, 
and contains fewer good harbors. 

Let the pupils name, in order , the bodies of water which 
surround this continent. 

The surface of Africa consists of a great plateau, which ap- 
proaches near to the ocean on all sides, leaving but a narrow 
strip of lowland along the coast. The plateau is higher in 
the south than it is in the north, and is surrounded by moun- 
tain ranges, of which the Atlas Mountains in the north, the 
Kong Mountains in the west, and the Mountains of the Moon 
in the east are the principal ones. Mount Kilimanjaro, 18,715 
feet, is the highest point of land in Africa. 

The Northern part of the plateau consists of the Sahara 
Desert, some parts of which are below the level of the Sea. 
The Sahara must not be conceived of as one vast expanse of 
sand, in which no rain ever falls, and on which no vegetation 
ever appears. Much of it is of this character, but the many 
oases by which it is dotted afford recruiting places for both 
man and beast. Wherever a spring is found, luxuriant vege- 
tation gladdens the eyes of the weary traveler. But in a land 
in which three or four years may pass by without any rain, 
springs are apt to be scarce. In several parts of the Sahara no 
rain ever falls, and were it not for the wells that are dug, gen- 

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ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


289 


erally at two or three days travel from each other, these regions 
would be impassable. 

Owing to the nature of its surface, the rivers ot Africa are 
obstructed by falls and rapids, and consequently, with the 
exception of the Nile, they are of little importance to com- 
merce. 

Africa lies almost entirely within the tropics, ana is tne hot- 
test of the continents. The difference of temperature between 
different parts of the continent is due to the influence of alti- 
tude rather than of latitude. The climate of the west coast is 
very unhealthy, and proves fatal to foreigners. 

Egypt, the most important country of Africa, is situated in 
the northeastern part of the continent. 

The habitable portion of the country consists of the valley of 
the Nile, and the Delta, or lowland at its mouth. The valley? 
which has an average width of„eight miles, is bordered on the 
east by the Arabian Desert, which extends to the Red Sea, and 
on the west by the Lybiau Desert, which extends towards the 
interior of the continent. There is a continual struggle between 
the Nile and the deserts for the possession of the narrow valley 
which constitutes the most important part of Egypt. 

“Born among the Mountains of the Moon, and cradled in 
the depths of their mighty caverns, tearing its way through 
mountain barriers and granite rocks, dashing down cataracts, 
lashed into foam by narrows and rapids, the Nile at last reaches 
the calmer, quiet life of the plain, and goes singing onward 
amid perpetual sunshine, scattering its blessings with a lavish 
hand, until it is sepulchered in its great ocean tomb,” after a 
course of 3,895 m iles. 

The great fertility of Egypt is due to the annual overflow 
of the Nile. “The rise of the waters begins the latter part of 
June, or just about the time of the summer solstice. The 
first indication is a change in the appearance of the waters, 


290 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


they become red and turbid. About the middle of July they 
burst the barrier of shore and banks, and spread themselves 
over the land, till the country looks like a great inland sea, 
dotted here and there by villages and towns. The latter part 
of September, the waters begin to subside, and by the end of 
November the banks hold in check the swollen stream. The rise 
is about four inches a day, and the decline at about the same rate. 
These annual inundations leave a rich alluvial deposit, brought 
down from the upper country, and from the fertile plains of 
Abyssinia. The great heat of the climate, operating on these 
fertilizing deposits, produces a most luxuriant vegetation.” 
Thirty-three feet is about the average rise of the river. 

Agriculture is carried on in a very rude manner. The prin- 
cipal crops are cotton, maize, durra, wheat, rice, lentils, sugar- 
cane, flax, hemp, tobacco, sesame, opium, melons, oranges, 
bananas, etc. 

The present population of Egypt consists of Copts, Turks, 
Syrians, Greeks, Jews, and representatives of most of the Eu- 
ropean nations, The country people, or . farmers, are called 
fellaheen; the singular is fellah. The language of the coun- 
try is Arabic. 

Egypt is nominally a dependency of Turkey. 

The Suez Canal crosses the narrow isthmus which con- 
nects Africa to Asia. It is 100 miles long, and of sufficient 
width and depth to admit the passage of the largest vessels. 

Cairo , the capital of Egypt, is situated on the Nile, five 
miles from the commencement of the Delta. The streets are 
narrow and crooked, there being but one in the business part 
of the city wide enough for carriages. The upper stories of 
many of the houses project over the lower ones. 

The Pyramids are on the left bank of*the Nile. The prin- 
cipal one is the pyramid of Cheops; it covers an area of about 
thirteen acres, and is 450 feet in height. 

Assouan is a city situated in the southern part of Egypt; it 
s at the first cataract of the Nile. 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


29 j 


Khartoum , the capital of the Soudan, is situated at the 
junction of the Blue and White Niles. It is the center of the 
Soudan trade. Ostrich plumes, gold dust, and ivory are 
brought here from the desert and traded for European and 
Asiatic goods. 

Khartoum has attracted much attention of late because of 
the war between England and a Mohammedan prophet, who 
is styled by the people “El Mahdi,” or, the teacher. Popula- 
tion 50,000. 

The Soudan is a name given to a large region of desert 
country which extends across Africa from near the Atlantic 
to the Red Sea. It is inhabited by Bedouin Arabs. 

Albert Nyanza and Victoria Nyanza are two great lakes of 
Central Africa; they are drained by the Nile River. 

Lake Tanganyika is situated south of Victoria Nyanza. 

Alexandria , the chief commercial city of Egypt, is situated 
on the Mediterranean Sea, near the western mouth of the 
Nile. 

The Barb ary States — Are Tripoli, Tunis, Algeria and 
Morocco. 

The surface is level along the Mediterranean, but in the 
south it is hilly and broken, being influenced by the Atlas 
Mountains. 

The lowlands are very fertile and produce large crops sim- 
ilar in kind to those of Egypt. The highlands afford excel- 
lent pasturage, being fairly well supplied with rain. 

Tripoli , the capital and principal seaport of Tripoli, on the 
Mediterranean Sea. The city has considerable commerce, 
and manufactures carpets, woolen goods, leather, and potash. 

Tunis , the capital and chief seaport of Tunis, has consider- 
able commerce, the principal exports being soap, wool, cattle, 
sponges, wax, gold-dust and ivory. The city is situated about 
three miles southwest of the ruins of ancient Carthage. 

Cape Blanco , the most nothern point of Africa, is in Tunis. 


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ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


Algiers , the capital and principal seaport of Algeria. 

The country of Algeria belongs to France; and the French 
have greatly modified and improved Algiers. It has wide 
and well-paved streets, beautiful parks, and splendid public 
buildings. Its commerce is very important. 

Fez , the capital of Morocco, is situated about 85 miles south 
of the Mediterranean. “The streets are narrow, dark, and 
extremely dirty. The houses are high, with flat roofs, on 
which the families spread carpets in summer to enjoy the cool 
breezes of the evening.” The city contains over 200 mosques. 

Morocco , an important city of Morocco, is noted for the 
manufacture of “Morocco leather.” 

Strait of Gibraltar . 

The Madeira Islands are west of the northern part of Af- 
rica, and belong to Portugal. 

The Azores are northwest of the Madeira Islands, and also 
belong to Portugal. 

The Canary Islands are situated close to the west coast of 
Africa. Tenerifle (the largest of the group) contains an area 
of 1,000 square miles, and has a mountain 12,182 feet in eleva- 
tion. The Canaries belong to Spain. 

On the western coast of Africa are several European settle- 
ments, no one of which is of sufficient importance to demand 
much attention at our hands. 

Cape Verd , the most western point of Africa. 

Cape Verd Islands are close to the Cape; they belong to 
Portugal. 

Liberia , a republic on the west coast of Africa. It was found- 
ed as a colony of free Negroes by the American Coloniza- 
tion Society. The abolition of slavery in the United States, 
and the enfranchising of the Negro, have caused immigration 
to Liberia to fall off considerably. 

Monrovia , the capital of Liberia, is on the coast. 

Gulf of Guinea . 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


293 


Guinea , a somewhat indefinite region of country, along the 
Gulf of Guinea. It is occupied mainly by native States whose 
inhabitants are still in a state of barbarism. 

The Niger River flows into the Gulf of Guinea. 

Timbuctoo , a city of Soudan, is situated eight miles north of 
the Niger River. It is a center for the trade between the na- 
tive States in the interior, and North Africa. 

Congo , the largest river of Africa, rises in the interior of 
the continent, and flows into the Atlantic. The leading mari- 
time nations of Europe are very much interested, at present, 
in establishing commercial stations in the basin of the Congo. 

Si. Helena Island is situated in the South Atlantic Ocean, 
about 1,400 miles west of the coast of Africa. It was the place 
of Napoleon Bonaparte’s banishment and death. It belongs 
to Great Britain. 

Orange River is the principal river of Southern Africa. 
Rich diamond mines have been discovered in the valley of 
this river. 

Cape Colony, the southern country of Africa, belongs to 
Great Britain. The province has several lines of railroad and 
telegraph, which greatly assist in the development of its re- 
sources. The leading industries are agriculture, grazing, and 
commerce. Wool is the staple article. 

Most of the white inhabitants are of Dutch descent, but there 
are many English and Germans. 

Cafe Town , the capital of Cape Colony, is situated on the 
Atlantic. It has considerable commerce, and its streets are 
well paved and lighted. 

Cafe of Good Hofe is about thirty miles south of Cape 
Town. 

Cafe Agulhas is the southern point of Africa. 

North of Cape Colony are several small States, some of 
which belong to Great Britain; and the others are free States, 
occupied mainly by the Boers, who are descendants of the 


294 


advanced work in geography 


early Dutch settlers of Southern Africa. England isconstant- 
ly encroaching upon these free States, and seems determined 
to annex them to its own dominion. 

Mozambique Channel separates the Island of Madagascar 
from the continent of Africa. This island constitutes a King- 
dom and is ruled overby a native monarch. The people are 
semi-civilized, and carry on agriculture, and some rude manu- 
factures. The capital is Tananarivo. 

The Zambezi River is the largest river of Africa, that flows 
into the Indian Ocean. 

Zanzibar is the principal native State on the east coast of 
Africa. The principal productions are cloves, rice, cotton, 
and sugar. 

Zanzibar , the capital of Zanzibar, is situated on an island of 
the same name. It has a very extensive commerce, being the 
“Chief market in the world for the supply of ivory, gum co- 
pal and cloves.” Population 80,000. 

Cajqe Guardafui is the most eastern point of Africa. 

Gulf of Aden . Strait of Bab-el Mandeb . 

The Red Sea . 

Abyssinia is a mountainous country of Eastern Africa. Some 
parts of the country are fertile and produce fair crops of maize, 
barley, wheat, millet, and pease. The Abyssinians are semi- 
civilized, and have made but little progress in the arts of civil- 
ization. 

The Isthmus of Suez . 

Let the pupils name, in order , all countries bordering on the 
Mediterranean Sea, giving the capital of each. 




.00 


CHAPTER XXII. 


AUSTRALIA, AND THE ISLANDS OF THE PACIFIC. 

Australia, the smallest of the six continents, is situated 
south of Asia. It is about as large as the the United States, 
excluding Alaska. The entire continent belongs to Great 
Britain. 

The coast line is very regular, there being no indentation 
of any note, except the Gulf of Carpentaria in the north. 

The surface is a low plateau which is generally lower in 
the interior than it is along the margins. The eastern margin 
is the highest, and has an average elevation of 1500 feet. 

The climate is warm, but healthful. The absence of high 
mountain ranges in the interior causes a marked deficiency in 
the rainfall. The narrow strip of country east of the plateau 
has a plentiful supply of rain, but some parts of the interior 
receive little or none, the most favored regions receiving 
barely enough to afford good grazing. 

The rivers are few and unimportant, and most of the lakes 
are salt, and so shallow that many of them dry up at times. 

The continent has rich deposits of gold, copper, iron, tin, 
manganese, and bituminous coal, and mining is one of the 
principal industries. 

QuEEnsland. — The colony of Queensland occupies the 
northeast part of Australia. Agriculture is carried on to some 
extent, but cattle-raising and wool-growing are the leading in- 
dustries. 

Brisbane is the capital. 


( 295 ) 


290 ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY, 

New South. Wales — Is situated south of Queensland. 
It is well adapted to farming. The chief productions are 
wheat, barley, Indian corn, arrowroot, potatoes, sugar-cane, 
tobacco, and grapes. The great wealth of the colony, how- 
ever, consists in its herds and flocks. 

Sidney , the capital and the oldest town in Australia, is on 
Port Jackson. The city has three colleges and a university; 
it has an extensive commerce. 

Victoria — The smallest, but the most populous of the Aus- 
tralian colonies, occupies the southeastern part of the continent. 
a Gold mining is the principal occupation, though cattle-rais- 
ing and agriculture are extensively pursued.” Mount Kosci- 
usko (7,285 feet), the highest point in Australia, is in this col- 
ony. Victoria and New South Wales are well supplied with 
railroads. 

Melbourne , the capital of Victoria, and the most populous 
city in Australia, is situated in the southern part of the colony. 

The commerce of the city is very important, and its manu- 
facturing establishments give employment to about 40,000 
pesons. Population 282,000. 

South. Australia — Is situated west of Victoria and 
New South Wales. The southern part of the colony is well 
adapted for the growth of the cereals and all kinds of fruit. 
The vine, tobacco, hops and indigo are among the leading 
crops. Large quantities of wine are exported annually. 

Murray , the principal river of Australia, is navigable for 
small vessels, for about eight months in the year. 

Adelaide , the capital of South Australia, is situated in the 
southeastern part of the colony. It is the terminus of several . 
lines of railroad. 


VZhst Australia. — Occupies the western part of the 
continent. Only a small portion of the country is inhabited. 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


297 


The principal exports of this colony are wool, copper, pearl- 
shells, and sandal-wood. Perth is the capital. 

Papua nr New Guinea — Is a large island situated 
north of Australia. But little is known of the interior, and 
only parts of the coast have been explored by Europeans. 
Holland claims the eastern half of the island. The inhabitants 
are chiefly a black, woolly-haired race. Birds of paradise, 
pearls, gold, fine woods and resins are obtained from the isl- 
and. 

CeIeTueSi — A n island of the East Indian Archipelago, is 
situated west of Papua. The coast line is very irregular, and 
the surface mountainous. 

The principal productions are coffee, cocoa, rice, and millet. 
The island is occupied by native tribes and a few Dutch. 
Holland claims jurisdiction over the whole of it. 

BDITLED. — One of the largest islands of the world, is situ- 
ated west of Celebes. 

The interior of the island has been only partially explored, 
but the surface is believed to be rough and broken. 

Rich deposits of gold and coal have been discovered. 

Gutta-percha, camphor, cinnamon, cloves, nutmegs, and be- 
tel nuts are among the leading products. 

The eastern end of Borneo is occupied by a native State, 
governed by a Sultan; the Dutch control the western end. 

Sumbawa — One of the Sunda Islands, is situated south 
of Borneo. The principal products are rice, tobacco, edible 
bird’s nests, sapan, gold-dust, pearls and sulphur. Holland 
claims the island. 

Java — The most important (tnough not the largest) isl- 
and of the East Indian Archipelago, is south of Borneo. The 


2g8 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


natives (who are of the Malay race) have made considerable 
advancement in civilization. They understand farming and 
manufacturing, and are successfully engaged in those pursuits. 
The Javanese cultivate rice, maize, ground nuts, yams and cas- 
sava. The principal crops cultivated by the whites are coffee, 
sugar-cane, tobacco and tea. Java and Sumatra rank next to 
Brazil in the production of coffee. The island is governed by 
a Dutch “Resident,” assisted by an army of inferior officials. 

Batavia , the capital of all the Dutch possessions in the East, 
is situated on the east end of the island of Java. Its commerce 
is very extensive, the chief exports being coffee, sugar, tobacco, 
gold-dust, camphor, tortoise-shell, dye woods, tin, and spices. 
Population 103,000. 

Sumatra — The most westerly of the Sunda Islands, is 
separated from the Malaya Peninsula by Malacca Strait. The 
greater part of the island is occupied by a number of native 
States, but Dutch influence prevails in the south and east. The 
principal products are about the same as those, of Java. 

Philippine Islands — Next to Cuba the most valuable 
‘possessions of Spain, are situated east of the southeastern part of 
Asia. Luzon is the most important island of the group. The 
productions of the Philipines are about the same as those of the 
other islands. 

Manila , on the Island of Luzon, is the capital and most pop- 
ulous city of the Philippine Islands. The city has an exten- 
sive commerce, the most important exports being manila hemp 
and cordage, tobacco, gold-dust, bird’s nests, coffee, tortoise- 
shell and rice. 

Tasmania — A British colony, is situated south of Aus- 
tralia, from which it is separated by Bass Strait. The soil is 
fertile, but covered by such dense forests, that the labor of 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


299 


preparing it for cultivation is very great. The leading pro- 
ducts are wool, grain, fruit and timber. 

Hobart Town, the capital of Tasmania, is situated near the 
southeast coast, on the Derwent River. 

New Ze aland — A British colony in the South Pacific, 
is situated southeast of Australia. The colony consists of a 
chain of islands, only three of which are of much importance. 
The chief productions are wool, flax, and the ordinary cereals. 
The aborigines are termed “Maoris.” Much attention is paid 
to education. “State schools are established, in which teach- 
ing is free, secular, and compulsory, with certain exceptions, 
for children between the ages of seven and thirteen. Grants 
are made for scholarships from primary to secondary schools, 
for training institutions for teachers and for school buildings.” 

Wellington , the capital of New Zealand, is situated on the 
south end of North Island. 

Fiji Islands— A British colony, are situated east of Aus- 
tralia. The principal products are bread-fruit, bananas, cocoa, 
yams, sugar, cotton and tobacco. ' The climate is agreeable 
and salubrious. The capital is Suva. 

Sandwich Islands — A group of eight inhabited and 
four uninhabited islands in the north Pacific Ocean, constitute 
the Kingdom of Hawaii. The island of Hawaii is the largest 
one of the group. On it are situated the volcano of Kilauea, 
whose crater is the largest active one in the world. This 
crater, or lake of fire, is situated at an elevation of 4,440 feet 
above the level of the sea. “For some distance before reach- 
ing the lake one feels the heat, and in many places has to leap 
over cracks in the lava, from which sulphurous smoke is con- 
tinually rising. But not until the lake is reached does its aw- 
ful grandeur burst upon the tourist, reminding him forcibly 
of some of Gustave Dore’s terrible illustrations in Dante’s In- 


300 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


ferno. From a height of some seventy feet, the eye rests upon 
a lake nine miles in circumference, and eight hundred feet in 
diameter, of boiling lava, its waves lashing themselves against 
its rugged sides, and sending showers of hot, glassy spray 
high into the air, presenting one of the most fascinating, yet 
awe-inspiring scenes the world possesses.” Mauna Loa, the 
highest mountain in the Pacific (13,760 feet) and the highest 
active volcano in the world, is also on this island. 

The principal productions are sugar, wheat, cotton, tobacco, 
arrowroot, and sweet potatoes. 

Honolulu , the capital of the Hawaiian Kingdom, is situated 
on the south side of the island of Oahu, 2,100 miles from San 
Francisco and 3,440 miles from Yokohama, Japan. The city 
has considerable commerce, and is an important port of call for 
vessels trading between the United States and the countries of 
Eastern Asia. 


CHAPTER XXIII. 


ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

G-EnmEtrical DEfinitions:— 

A point is that which has position only. 

A line is that which has length, without breadth or thick- 
ness. 

A straight line is one that does not change its direction. 

A curved line is one that changes its direction at all points. 

A surface is that which has length and breadth, without 
thickness. 

A plane is a surface in which, if any two points be taken, 
the straight line connecting them lies in the surface. It is diffi- 
cult to make a surface that is a plane in the strict mathemati- 
cal sense of the term. But the surface of a board, if carefully 
planed, is very nearly a plane. 

A circle is a plane bounded by a line all points of which are 
equidistant from a fixed point within. This point is the center 
of the circle. 

The circumference of a circle is its bounding line. 

Care should be taken to distinguish clearly between the cir- 
cle and its circumference. Under no circumstances isthecir- 
cmnference a circle / nor is the circle a line . 

The radius of a circle is a straight line drawn from the cen- 
ter to any point in the circumference. 

The diaineter of a circle is a straight line drawn through the 
center and terminating in the circumference; it is twice the 
length of the radius. 

A solid is that which has length, breadth and thickness. 

(301) 


3° 2 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


Make clear to your pupils the difference between a mathe- 
matical solid and a physical solid, and teach that in this work 
mathematical terms are used entirely. 

A sphere is a solid all points in whose surface are equidis- 
tant from a fixed point. Is it necessary in this definition to say 
that the “fixed point” must be within? Why? 

The radius of a sphere is a straight line drawn from the cen- 
ter to any point in the circumference. 

The diameter of a sphere is a strait line drawn through the 
center and terminating in the surface. 

Every section of a sphere made by a plane is a circle. If 
an orange be cut into two parts, each cut surface is a circle. 

A great circle of a sphere is one that divides it into two 
equal parts, called Hemispheres . All great circles of the 
same sphere bisect each other. 

A small circle of a sphere is one that divides it into two un- 
equal parts. 

SpllBricity ui tllE Earth. — It is not best at this point 
to say anything about the oblateness of the earth. First let 
the idea of its rotundity be clearly fixed; this can be modified 
afterwards by telling why the earth is believed to be an ob- 
late spheroid. We notice six proofs of the earth’s sphericity. 

1. The surface of the earth rises up between any two dis- 
tant points on it. 

Illustrations. — ( a ) In looking at a ship coming into port, we 
first seethe sails and masts, and later the hull. If the vessel is 
going out of port, the hull will disappear first, and the sails 
and masts last. 

(b) Even in a level country the farther above the surface 
one goes, the greater distance he can see. 

( c ) In a hilly country the sun shines first in the morning 
and last in the evening, on the tops of the mountains. 

2. We know the earth to be round from east to west because 
it has been sailed around; and we know by the stars that it is 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


303 


round from north to south. For if we start from any place 
on the earth’s surface and travel either north or south, the 
stars in front of us will rise higher and higher above our hori- 
zon, while those behind us will sink lower. 

How does this prove that the earth is round ? 

3. Astronomers tell us that the other planets are spheres, 
and as the earth resembles them in many other respects, it is 
fair to suppose that it does in this. It what respects does the 
earth resemble the other planets? 

4. It is supposed that the earth was at one time in a fluid 
state, and all fluids, when left to themselves, assume a spherical 
form. Give several simple illustrations. 

5. The shadow of the earth, seen on the moon in time of an 
eclipse, is always circular; and a sphere is the only body that 
will always cast a circular shadow, no matter what position it 
may be in. 

6. Engineers, in laying out canals, have to make allowance 
for the curvature of the earth’s surface. 

Law of Allowance . — Eight inches for one mile and, gener- 
ally, 8 inches multiplied by the square of the number repre- 
senting the length of the canal in miles. So that for two 
miles the allowance is 8 in. X in ; for three miles it is 
8 in. X 3 2 — 72 in.; and for five miles it is 8 in. X 5 2 =200 in., 
etc.* 

Were the bottom of the canal a plane, in what part of it 
would the water be the deepest? 


MntiDIlS ni the Earth, — The earth rotates from west 
to east. This may be shown by calling attention to the appar- 
ent motion of the sun and fixed stars from east to west. As 
they are fixed, their apparent motion must be due to the real 
motion of the earth. 


*Steele’s “Fourteen Weeks in Astronomy,” page 99. 


304 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


The earth’s axis is the line on which it rotates. By extend- 
ing this line indefinitely it becomes the celestial axis. It takes 
the earth twenty-four hours (23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4.09 sec- 
ond exactly) to make one rotation. And as day and night are, 
caused by this motion, it is called the earth’s diurnal or daily 
motion. Let the pupils show, using the globe, how the rota- 
tion of the earth on its axis causes day and night. 

The poles are the points at which the earth’s surface cuts its 
axis. The northern point is the north -pole , and the southern 
one is the south pole . 

The equator is a great circle of the earth perpendicular to 
its axis. There can be but one such great circle, and it is mid- 
way between the poles. If the plane of the terrestrial equa- 
tor is extended, it becomes the celestial equator. 

1 

Parallels are small circles of the earth parallel to the equa- 
tor. Are they perpendicular to the earth’s axis? Why so? 
How many parallels may there be? In making a map, how 
far apart must they be placed. 

Meridian circles are great circles of the earth passing 
through the poles. The axis of the earth forms their common 
diameter; hence, they are all perpendicular to the equator. 

Meridians are semi-circumferences of meridian circles, ter- 
minating at the poles. Every place on the earth’s surface has 
passing through it a parallel and a meridian. 

Latitude is distance north or south of the equator; it is meas- 
ured on a meridian. Why is it measured on a meridian? 
The latitude of places on the equator is zero. Latitude near 
the equator is called low latitude; near either pole, high lati- 
tude. All places on the same parallel have the same latitude. 
If two men, 1,000 miles apart, start at the same moment from 
the same parallel, and travel due north at the same rate, where 
will they come together? Why? 

Longitude is distance east or west from any given meridian; 
it is measured on the arc of a parallel. Why measured on the 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


305 


arc of a parallel? The longitude of all places on the standard 
meridian is zero. All points on the same meridian have the 
same longitude. If two men, 1,000 miles apart, start at the 
same time, from the same meridian, and travel due east at the 
same rate, where will they come together? Why so? 

Every circumference is conceived of as divided into 360 
equal parts; each of these parts is termed a degree . Since the 
circumference of a great circle of the earth is 24,899 miles, or 
in round numbers, a little less than 25,000 miles, a degree of 
the circumference of the equator equals 69^ miles. But as 
the parallels are small circles of the earth, a degree of their 
cicumference is less than 69^ miles; and the nearer the pole 
a parallel is, the shorter will be a degree of its circumference; 
until at the poles it ceases to have any length; hjnce, degrees 
of longitude grow shorter from the equator towards the poles, 
where they become nothing. 

The zenith of any observer is that point of the heavens di- 
rectly over his head. 

The nadir of any observer is that point of the heavens di- 
rectly beneath his feet; it is the opposite of the zenith. 

The vertical line of any observer is the straight line which 
connects his zenith and nadir 

The mathematical , or ratio 7 ial horizon , is a great circle of 
the earth perpendicular to the vertical line of the observer. It 
passes through the center of the earth, and is 4,000 miles from 
the point of observation. 

The visible horizon is the line in which the earth and sky 
seem to meet. The visible horizon of every observer is sup- 
posed to be ninety degrees from him. 

Were the observer to stand at either pole, his mathematical 
horizon would coincide with what other great circle of the 
earth? Where must the observer be that his horizon may pass 
through the poles? 


3o6 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


□"blatEZLESS ni tllE Earth, — We have talked of the 
earth’s sphericity, yet the earth is not a sphere, but is like one; 
it is a spheroid. There are two kinds of spheroids, oblate and 
prolate. 

An oblate spheroid is one whose equatorial diameter is 
greater than its polar diameter. 

A prolate spheroid is one whose polar diameter is greater 
than its equatorial diameter. 

The earth is an oblate sflieroid. To have fully determined 
this great truth, may be justly regarded as one of the greatest 
achievements of science. For since the equatorial diameter of 
the earth is 7,925^ miles, and the polar diameter 7,899 miles; 
the “flattening” at each pole must be one half the difference, 
or 131^ miles. This causes so slight a deviation from the 
sphere, that the only wonder is that it ever was discovered. 
The flattening at each pole is about of the earth’s 

radius, or for our purpose 3^ is sufficiently exact. This 
proportion on a globe twelve inches in diameter will give ^ 
of an inch as the flattening at each pole; and on a globe thirty 
inches in diameter, the flattening will be ^ of an inch, a trifle 
so insignificent that it is doubtful if even an observant person 
can tell whether the globe he uses is flattened at the poles or 
not. 

You will see from the above calculation that it is hardly 
worth while to trouble beginners in geography very much 
about the “flattening at the poles.” 

Still, the earth is, in form, an oblate spheroid. We notice 
four proofs of its oblateness. 

1. The vibrations of the pendulum are caused by the attrac- 
tion of gravitation. The greater the attraction, the more vi- 
brations will the pendulum make in any given portion of time. 
The nearer we approach the center of gravity of a body and 

yet be on its outside, the greater will be the attraction. It has 
been found that the farther we move from the equator, the 
more vibrations will the pendulum make in any given time. 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


307 


Hence, the conclusion is that as we approach the poles we are 
getting nearer to the center of gravity, which in this case is 
about the same as the center of the earth. Consequently, the 
polar diameter must be shorter than the equatorial diameter. 

2. It is supposed that the earth was at one time in a fluid 
state; and fluids, when revolved rapidly on their axes, draw up 
from the ends (or poles), and swell out at the centers (or equa- 
tors). Give several, simple illustrations. 

3. It has been ascertained by astronomers that the other 
planets are spheroids, and as the earth resembles them in many 
other respects, it is fair to suppose that it does in this. In 
what respect does the earth resemble the other planets? 

4. It has been ascertained by actual measurement, on the 
earth’s surface, that the farther we move from the equator, 
the greater distance must we travel to pass over a degree of 
latitude. 

Explanation . — All circumferences have the same amount of 
curvature; hence, all degrees considered as amounts of curva- 
ture are equal. But considered as lines they vary as do the 
circumferences. 

The day circle , or circle of light , is a great circle of the 
earth, whose circumference separates the illumined part of the 
earth’s surface from the dark part. It is a great circle, as the 
sun shines on one half of the earth’s surface at all times. 

A diurnal circle is one whose circumference is described by 
the sun in its apparent daily revolution around the earth. All 
diurnal circles are parallels. 

The earth not only rotates on its axis, but also revolves 
around the sun. And as the time which it takes to make one 
revolution is a year, this motion is called its annual, or yearly 
motion. 

The earth's orbit is the path, or line, in which the center of 
the earth moves in going around the sun ; it is elliptical in form, 
and the earth moves in it from west to east, at the rate of about 
19 miles a second. 


308 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


The plane of the earth's orbit is the plane in which the 
orbit lies; it always passes through the centers of the earth 
and sun. [Keep the idea of a mathematical plane before the 
minds of the pupils.] 

Eeclinatinii of the Earth's Axis, and the Ctm- 

SEquenCESi — The axis of the earth is declined 23 y 2 ° from a 
perpendicular to the plane of its orbit; and its position is al- 
ways parallel to itself. 

Were the axis perpendicular to the plane of the orbit, the 
day circle would always pass through the poles, the days and 
nights would be of equal length at all times and in all places, 
the vertical ray of the sun would constantly fall on the equa- 
tor, and there would be no change of seasons. But as the axis 
is declined from a perpendicular to the plane of its orbit, the 
vertical ray falls on the equator but twice during the year, 
March 21 and September 21 ; these dates are termed the equi- 
noxes. 

When the vertical ray of the sun falls north of the equator, 
the sun will shine beyond the north pole and lack of shining 
to the south pole, as many degrees as the vertical ray falls 
north of the equator. And when the vertical ray is south of 
the equator, the sun will shine beyond the south pole and lack 
of shining to the north pole as many degrees as the vertical 
ray is south of the equator. The vertical ray reaches its grea- 
test distance from the equator on June 21 and December 21; 
these dates are named the solstices. 

The earth is about 3,000,000 miles nearer to the sun at the 
winter solstice than it is at the summer solstice, yet, owing to 
the fact that fewer heat rays fall on any given surface in the 
winter (because of their obliquity) than do in the summer, it is 
much the colder of the two seasons. 

During what months does the vertical ray fall north of the 
equator? South? Name the principal countries in which it 
is summer when the vertical ray is south of the equator. Why 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY. 


309 


do the rays of the sun fall upon the northern hemisphere more 
obliquely in December than they do in June? 

The tropics are parallels, 233^° from the equator; and they 
mark the greatest distance from the equator on which the ver- 
tical ray of the sun ever falls. How many tropics are there? 
Names? Meaning of names? Why are the tropics in their 
present position? 

The polar circles are parallels, 23^° from the poles; 
and they mark the greatest distance which the sun ever shines 
beyond the poles or lacks of shining to them. Give the names 
of the polar circles. Why are these circles in their present 
position. 

The zones are the belts or great rings into which the earth’s 
surface is divided by the tropics and polar circles. How 
many zones are there? What is the width of each? 

Were the declination of the earth’s axis from a perpendi- 
cular to the plane of its orbit io° instead of 231^°, what would 
be the position of the tropics? Of the polar circles ? How wide 
would each of the zones be? How would the temperature of 

* 

the summers and winters compare with the temperature of 
those seasons at present? 

Were the axis of the earth declined 45 0 from a perpendicu- 
lar to the plane of its orbit, how many zones would there be? 
What would be the width of each ? How would the seasons com- 
pare in length and temperature with the seasons at present? 

From what has now been said it will be seen that the change 
of seasons is due to the parallelism of the earth’s axis to itself, 
its declination from a perpendicular to the plane of its orbit, 
and the revolution of the earth around the sun. 

Notwithstanding that the position of the earth’s axis is al- 
ways parallel to itself, the poles are constantly pointing towards 
the same points in the heavens. This is dtie to the fact that 
the distances from the earth to the fixed stars (the only fixed 
points in the sky) are so great that, by comparison, the diame- 


3io 


ADVANCED WORK IN GEOGRAPHY, 


ter of the earth’s orbit (185,000,000 miles) becomes a mere 
point. The north pole points to the north star, hence, to an 
observer on the equator the north star will appear in the hori- 
zon; to one south of the equator it will be invisible, and to an 
observer at any point north of the equator, it will appear as 
many degrees above the horizon, as the point of observation is 
degrees from the equator. 

How many degrees above the horizon will the north star 
appear to an observer at Chicago? London? St. Petersburg? 
Where must the observer be, in order that the north star may 
appear in his zenith ? 

The day circle always cuts the the diurnal circles of all 
places, outside of the frigid zones, into two parts; and at the 
equinoxes it cuts the diurnal circles of all places into two equal 
parts. From the vernal to the autumnal equinox, the larger 
part of the diurnal circle of any place in the northern hemi- 
sphere is in the light, and the nearer the pole a place is 
the greater will be the part of its diurnal circle which is il- 
lumined. From the autumnal to the vernal equinox, less than 
half of the diurnal circle of any place north of the equator is 
in the light; and at the winter solstice, the diurnal circle of any 
place in the north frigid zone is entirely outside of the day 
circle. 

Which has the longer day in summer, New Orleans or St. 
Paul? Chicago or London? Paris or St. Petersburg? 
Which has the longer day in winter? Why so? 

In determining the answers to the questions asked in this 
chapter, let the pupils use a globe, if possible. 



APPENDIX A, 


SYSTEM OF SURVEY AND DESIGNATION OF THE PUBLIC 
LANDS OF THE UNITED STATES. 

The public lands of the United States (consisting of lands 
belonging to the General Government at the close of the Rev- 
olutionary War, together with territories since acquired from 
the Indians, from several of the States, and from foreign pow- 
ers) are laid out into squares, the sides of which run truly east 
and west, and north and south. The squares thus formed are 
called townships. 

Each township contains 36 square miles, “as nearly as may 
he,” and is divided into 36 sections , each one mile square, “as 
nearly as may be.’ 7 A section contains 640 acres. A half- 
section is a mile long and half a mile wide, and contains 320 
acres. A quarter-section is a half mile square, and contains 
1 60 acres. 

The survey of each land -district begins by the establishing 
of a true meridian from some prominent point; this is called 
the Principal Meridian . From some point in the Principal 
Meridian is run a line due east and west, called the Base Line . 

Starting from the Base Line, the surveyors measure along 
the Principal Meridian, marking each half-mile point with a 
“quarter-stake,” and each mile point with a “section corner.” 
A “township corner” is established at each six-mile point. In 
like manner, the half-mile, mile, and six-mile corners are 
marked on the Base Line, reckoning from its intersection with 
the Principal Meridian. 

In laying out the first township east of the Principal Meri- 
dian and north of the Base Line, the surveyors start from the 
latter, at a distance of six miles from the former, and travel 

(31O 


312 


APPENDIX. 


% 


due north six miles, marking the half-mile, and mile points as 
before. They then go due west to the Principal Meridian. 
If the township to be laid out is the first one west of the Prin- 
cipal Meridian and north of the Base Line, the surveyors 
start from a point in the Base Line six miles west of the Prin- 
cipal Meridian, and measure six miles north, and then east to 
the same meridian. The southeast corner is the starting point 
in laying out all townships east of the Principal Meridian and 
north of the Base Line, and the southwest corner is the start- 
ing point in laying out those west of the Principal Meridian. 
In laying out townships south of the Base Line, the northwest 
corner is the starting point for those west of the Principal 
Meridian, and the northeast corner for those on the east. 

All the townships, situated north or south of each other 
form a Range . The ranges are named by their number east 
or west of the Principal Meridian. The townships in each 
range are named by their number north or south of the Base 
Line. 

Thus in diagram No. i, all of the townships, in the first row 
east of the Principal Meridian, are in Range I, East; those in 
the second row are in Range II, East, etc. Townships in the 
first row west are in Range I, West, those in the second row 
are in Range II, West, etc. 


APPENDIX. 


3*3 

Diagram No. 1. 


N. 



S. 


Each township in the first row north of the Base Line is 
Town 1, North; each one in the first row south is Town 1, 
South; etc. The township marked *, in the diagram, is Town 
3, North, Range II, West of the Principal Meridian. The 
township marked f, in the diagram, is Town 4, South, Range 
III, East of the Principal Meridian. 

The sections in each township are numbered as in diagram 
No. 2, from 1 to 36, beginning at the northeast corner, and 
going west to 6, then east from 7 to 12, and so on alternately 
to section 36, which will be in the southeast corner of the 
township. 

Since 1852, sections 16 and 36 are set apart for the mainten- 
ance of public schools; previous to that date, only section 1 6 
was given for this purpose. 






314 


APPENDIX. 


Diagram No. 2. 



6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

I 

i 

8 

9 

IO 

I I 

I 2 

18 

i/ 

l6 

1 5 

H 

13 

>9 

20 

2 I 

V 

22 

2 3 

24 

30 

29 

28 

27 

26 

25 

3 > 

3 2 

33 

34 

35 

36 

i 


S. 


E. 


Lands are legally described as follows: 

“The southeast quarter of the 
northeast quarter of section ten in 
township four south, of range three 
east of the third Principal Meridian, 
E. contaning forty acres more or less. 
The above is often abbreviated 
thus : 

“The S. E y x of the N. E^, Sec. 
10, T. 4 S., R. 3 E. of the 3d P. M.” 
Their east and west boundaries being meridians, it is evident 
that townships accurately surveyed cannot be squares, but are 
longer upon the southern than upon the northern boundary? 
owing to the convergence of the meridians. In view of this 
fact, the law provides that the sections of a mile square shall 
contain 640 acres, as nearly as may be\ and, morever, provides 
that “In all cases where the exterior lines of the township 


N. 


VV. 


s. 


APPENDIX. 


3*5 


shall exceed, or shall not extend, six miles, the excess or defi- 
ciency shall be specially noted, and added to or deducted from 
the western or northern ranges of sections or half-sections in 
such township, according as 'the error may be in running the 
lines from east to west, or from south to north.” 

“In order to throw the excesses or deficiencies, as the case 
may be, on the north and west sides of a township, according 
to law, it is necessary to survey the section lines from south to 
north on a true meridian, leaving the result in the northern 
line of the township to be governed by the convexity of the 
earth and the convergency of meridians.” 

To provide for the error that would result from the conver- 
gence of the meridians and prevent it from becoming so great 
as to destroy the value of the system, standard parallels, or 
Correction Lines are established at intervals of 24 miles north 
of the Base Line, and 30 miles south. Such lines when lying 
north of the principal base, themselves constitute a base to the 
surveys on the north of them; and when lying south of the 
principal base, they constitute the base for the surveys south 
of them. 

“The convergency or divergency above noticed is taken up 
on these Correction Lines, from which the townships start 
again with their proper width. On these therefore are found 
Double Corners , both for Townships and Sections, one set 
being the Closing Corners of the surveys ending there, and the 

other set being the Standard Corners for the surveys starting 
there.” 

The 1st Principal Meridian forms the boundary line be- 
ween Ohio and Indiana. Its Base Line is the parallel of 41 °, 
the southern boundary of the Western Reserve. Only the 
western and northwestern parts of Ohio are surveyed from 
this meridian. 

The 2d Principal Meridian begins on the Ohio River at the 
mouth of Little Blue Creek, and runs north, nearly through 
the center of Indiana. Its Base Line crosses it about twelve 


3* 6 


APPENDIX. 


miles north of New Albany, All of Indiana, and that part of 
Illinois lying east of Range XI, East of the 3d Principal 
Meridian and south of the middle of Kankakee County, are 
surveyed from this meridian. 

The 3d Principal Meridian runs north from the mouth of 
the Ohio River, nearly through the center of Illinois. Its 
Base Line is the extension of the Base Line of the 2d Princi- 
pal Meridian to the Mississippi River. South of the middle 
of Kankakee County, the Ranges number east from this me- 
ridian to Range XI, and north of the said point they number 
east to the State Line. The Ranges number west from this 
meridian to the Mississippi and Illinois Rivers. 

The 4th Principal Meridian begins at the mouth of the Illi- 
nois River, and runs north to Lake Superior. Its Base Line 
crosses it at Beardstown. That part of Illinois lying west of 
the Illinois River and the 3d Principal Meridian is surveyed 
from this meridian. 

All of Wisconsin and that part of Minnesota lying east of 
the Mississippi are also surveyed from this meridian, with 
the southern boundary of Wisconsin as Base Line. 

Michigan is surveyed from the Michigan Meridian , run- 
ning nearly through the center of the State. Its Base Line 
commences on Lake St. Clair and ends on Lake Michigan, 
forming the boundary between the second and third tiers of 
counties. 

The 5th Principal Meridian begins at the mouth of the Ar- 
kansas River, and extends through Missouri, Iowa and Min- 
nesota. Its Base Line runs west from the mouth of tire St. 
Francis River, passing a little south of Little Rock, Arkansas. 
Missouri, Iowa, and Minnesota, west of the Mississippi, and 
Dakota, east of the Missouri, are surveyed from this merdian. 

The. 6th Principal Meridian is near the center of Kansas. 
Its Base Line i the fortieth parallel of north latitude. Kan- 
sas, Nebraska, Colorado, and Dakota, west of the Missouri, 
are surveyed from this meridian. 

The other Principal Meridians are named, instead of num- 
bered. 


APPENDIX B. 


MOTTOES, MEANING OF NAMES, AND SOBRIQUETS OF THE 

STATES. 

Alabama — Has no motto. The name means “Here we 
rest.” 

Arkansas — Motto, Regnant fiofiuli, “The people rule.” 
The name is derived from Kansas, “Smoky water,” and the 
French prefix arc , a “bow.” It is called the “Bear State.” 
California — Motto, Eureka , “I have found it.” The 
name is supposed to have been taken from an old Spanish ro- 
mance. It is known as the “Golden State.” 

Colorado — Motto, Nil sine Numine , “Nothing without 
God.” The name means “Red.” This is the “Centennial 
State.” 

Connecticut — Motto, Qiti transtulit Sustinet , “He who 
brought us over sustains us.” The name means “The long 
river.” It is called the “Land of steady habits,” and the 
“Nutmeg State.” 

Delaware — Motto, “Liberty and independence.” Named 
in honor of Thomas West, Lord de la Ware. It is popularly 
known as the “Diamond State,” and the “Blue Hen.” 

Florida — Motto, “In God is our trust.” The name means 
“Flowery.” Florida is known as the “Peninsular State.” 
Georgia — Motto, “Wisdom, justice and moderation.” It 
was named in honor of George II of England. It is known 
as the “Empire State of the South.” 

Illinois — Motto, “State soverignty, national union.” 
The name is derived from the Indian word illini, “men,” and 
the French suffix ois. It is called the “Prairie State,” and the 
“Sucker State.” 

(3i7) 


APPENDIX. 


318 

Indiana — Has no motto. The name was suggested by its 
large Indian population. It is known as the “Hoosier State.” 
Iowa — Motto, “Our liberties we prize, our rights we will 
maintain.” Some authorities claim that the name is the 
French form of an Indian word, meaning “the drowsy,” or 
“sleepy ones;” others claim that the name means “This is the 
Land.” It is popularly known as the “Hawkeye State.” 
Kansas — Motto, Ad astra j)er aspera , “To the stars 
through difficulties.” The name means “Smoky water.” 
Kansas is the “Garden of the West.” 

Kentucky — Motto, “United we stand, divided we fall.” 
The name means “at head of a river.” It is called the “dark 
and bloody ground,” and the “Corn-cracker State.” 

Louisiana — Motto, “Union and confidence.” It was 
named in honor of Louis XIV of France. It is known as the 
“Creole State,” and the “Pelican State.” 

Maine — Motto, Dirigo , “I direct.” The State was named 
after a province of France. It it popularly known as the 
“Lumber State,” and the “Pine-tree State.” 

Maryland —Motto, Crescite et multi plicam ini ^ “Increase 
and multiply.” The State was named in honor of Henrietta 
Maria, wife of Charles I of England. It is frequently spoken 
of as the “Old Line State.” 

Massachusetts — Motto, Ense fetit 'placidam sub liber- 
tate , “By the sword she seeks placid rest in liberty.” The 
name means “about the great hills.” It is known as the “Bay 
State.” 

Michigan — Motto, Tuebor , and, Si quceris fcninsulam 
amcenam circumsfiice, “I will defend.” “If you seek a pleas- 
ant peninsula, look around you.” The name means “ a weir 
for fish.” It is popularly known as the “Lake State,” and the 
“Wolverine State.” 

Minnesota — French motto, E Etoile du Eord, “The 
star of the North.” The name means “hazy,” or “smoky 
water.” This is the “Gopher State.” 


APPENDIX. 


319 


Mississippi — Has no motto. The name means “Great 
River,” or the “F ather of W aters.” It is known as the “Bayou 
State.” 

Missouri — Motto, Salus popnli suprema lex esto , “Let 
the welfare of the people be the supreme law.” The name 
means “Muddy water.” It is called the “Iron State.” 

Nebraska — Motto, “Equality before the law.” The name 
means “broad and shallow.” It is popularly known as the 
“Black Water State.” 

Nevada — Motto, Volens et potens , “Willing and able.” 
The name is a Spanish word, meaning “Snowy.” Nevada is 
known as the “Silver State.” 

New Hampshire — Has no motto. It was named after a 
county in England. This is “The Old granite State.” 

New Jersey — Motto, “Liberty and Independence.” The 
State was named in honor of Sir George Carteret, who had 
been governor of Jersey Island. It is known as the “Garden 
State.” 

New York — Motto, Excelsior , “Higher.” It was named 
in honor of the Duke of York. It is known as the “Empire 
State.” 

North Carolina — Has no motto. It was named after 
Charles IX of France. It is popularly called the “Old North 
State,” and the “Turpentine State.” 

Ohio — Motto, Imperium in imperia , “An empire in an 
empire.” The name means “beautiful.” Ohio is known as 
the “Buckeye State.” 

Oregon — Motto, Alis volat propriis , “She flies with her 
own wings.” The name is derived from the principal river 
of the State, and means the “River of the West.” It is known 
as the “Beaver State.” 

Pennsylvania — Motto, “Virtue, liberty and independ- 
ence. The State was named in honor of William Penn, 
“Penn’s Woods.” It is the “Keystone State.” 


320 


APPENDIX. 


Rhode Island — Motto, “Hope.” It was named from a 
fancied resemblance of its principal island to the Island of 
Rhodes, in the Mediterranean Sea. It is known as “Little 
Rhody ” 

South Carolina — Motto, Animis opibusque parati , 
“Ready in will and deed.” The State was named in honor of 
Charles IX of France. It is known as the “Palmetto State.” 
Tennessee — Motto, “Agriculture, commerce.” It was 
named after its principal river, whose name means “The River 
of the great bend.” It is frequently called the “Volunteer 
State.” 

Texas — Has no motto. The name means “Friendly.” It 
is known as the “Lone Star State.” 

Vermont — Motto, “Freedom and unity.” The State has 
the French name of its mountains ( Verd Mont, “Green Moun- 
tains”). It is the “Green Mountain State.” 

Virginia — Motto, Sic semper tyrannis , “So always with 
tyrants.” The State was named in honor of Queen Elizabeth, 
the “Virgin Queen” of England. It is popularly known as 
the “Old Dominion,” “The Mother of Presidents,” and the 
“Mother of States.” 

West Virginia — Motto, Montani semper //^n, “Moun. 

taineers are always free.” It is known as the “New Domin- 

• 

ion. 

Wisconsin — Motto, Civilitas successit barbarian, “The 
civilized man succeeds the barbarous.” It has the Indian name 
of its chief river, whose meaning is “wild rushing waters.” 
This is the “Badger State.” 


APPENDIX C. 


CONGRESSIONAL 

Districts. Counties. 

I Cook. 

II Cook. 

III. , Cook. 

IV. Cook. 

r Lake. 

McHenry. 


DISTRICTS OF ILLINOIS, 


V. 


VI. 


VII. 


VIII. 


IX. 




Boon. 

De Kalb. 
Kane. 

' Winnebago, 
Stephenson. 
Jo Daviess. 
Ogle. 
Carroll. 

( T P p 

Whiteside. 
Henry. 
Bureau. 
Putnam. 

f La Salle. 

| Kendall. 

■{ Grundy. 
Will. 

Du Pao-e. 




Kankakee. 
Iroquois. 
Ford. 

] Livingston. 
Woodford. 
Marshall. 


Districts. 


Counties, 


XV. 


XVI. 


” McLean. 

De Witt. 
XIV. « Piatt. 

Macon. 

Logan. 

f Coles. 

Edgar, 
Douglas. 
Vermilion, 

^ Champaign. 

r Cumberland. 
Clark. 

Jasper. 
Crawford. 
Clay. 

' Richland. 
Lawrence. 
Wayne. 
Edwards. 
Wabash. 

f Macoupin. 
Montgomery, 
Shelby. 
Moultrie. 
Effingham. 
Fayette. 

Bond. 
Madison. 
XVIII \ St. Clair. 
Monroe. 
Washington. 


XVII. 


(321) 


322 


APPENDIX. 



XI. 


XII. 


XIII. 




< 


v 


Peoria. 

Knox. 

Stark. 

Fulton. 


r 




V 


< 


V. 


< 




Rock Island. 

Mercer. 

Henderson. 

Warren. 

Hancock. 

McDonough. 

Schuyler. 

Cass. 

Brown. 

Adams. 

Pike. 

Scott. 

Greene. 

Jersey. 

Calhoun. 

Tazewell. 

Mason. 

Menard. 

Sangamon. 

Morgan. 

Christian. 


XIX. 


XX. 


r Marion. 
Clinton. 
Jefferson. 
Franklin. 

^ Hamilton. 
White. 
Saline. 
Gallatin. 
Hardin. 

V 

r Perry. 
Randolph. 
Jackson. 
Williamson. 
Union. 
Johnson. 
Pope. 
Alexander. 
Pulaski. 
Massac. 


SENATORIAL DISTRICTS OF ILLINOIS. 


Districts. 

Counties. 

Districts 

I 



II 


XXXII. 

Ill 



IV 



V 


XXXIII. 

VI 



VII 



VIII. 

( Lake. 

XXXIV. 

■< McHenry. 
( Boone. 

IX 


XXXV. 


Counties. 

f Douglas. 

■j Coles. 

( Cumberland. 

f Moultrie. 

•< Shelby. 

( Effingham. 

f Mason. 

) Menard, 
j Schuyler. 

[ Cass. 

. . Adams. 


APPENDIX. 


Brown. 

Pike. 

Calhoun. 


323 


X, 

XI 

XII. 

XIII. ... 

XIV. 

XV. ... 

XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. 

XIX. 

XX. 

XXI. 

XXII. 
XXIII. 

XXIV. 

XXV. 


j Winnebago. 

( Ogle. 

. . Cook. 

f Jo Daviess. 

} Stephenson. 

( Carroll. 

. . Cook. 

j Kane. 

( Du Page. 

..Will. 

j Kankakee. 

I Iroquois. 

( De Kalb. 

) Kendall. 

( Grundy. 

j Livingston. 

| Ford. 

{ Whiteside. 

( Lee. 

( Marshall. 

J Woodford. 

( Tazewell. 

j Rock Island. 
( Plenry. 

j Knox, 

( Fulton. 

. . .La Salle. 

( Hancock. 

} Henderson. 

^ Mercer. 

t Bureau. 

-) Stark. 

( Putnam. 


XXXVI. 


( Scott. 

XXXVII. ) Greene. 

(Jersey. 

XXXVIII. -j Macoupin. 

( Morgan. 

XXXIX Sangamon. 


XL. 


\ Christian. 

I Montgomery. 


XLI Madison. 

C Bond. 

XLII. ] Clinton. 

( Washington. 


XLIII. 

XLIV. 


XLV. 


( Fayette. 

Marion. 

( Jefferson. 

r Clay. 

Richland. 

] Wayne. 

[ Edwards. 

( Clark. 

J J asper. 

( Crawford. 


XLVI. 

XLVII 


Hamilton. 

White. 

W abash. 
Lawrence. 

St. Clair. 


( Monroe. 

XLVIII. \ Randolph. 
( Perry. 


324 


APPENDIX. 


XXVI Peoria. 


XXVII. 


j Warren. 

( McDonough. 


XX VIII.... McLean. 


XXIX 

XXX. 

XXXI. 


( Logan. 

| Macon. 

{ Champaign. 
Piatt. 

De Witt. 

J Vermilion. 

( Edgar. 


XLIX 


L. 

LI. 


" Saline. 
Gallatin. 
Massac. 
Hardin. 
Pope. 

( Jackson. 

-< Union. 

( Alexander. 

r F rank’lin. 

J Williamson. 
) Johnson. 
[Pulaski. 







low to Teach United States History and Hoiv to Study it . 

NITED STATES HISTORY. 

4 BY TEE BB3CE SYSTEM > 

By JOHN TEAINEK, A. M., Co. Snpt- of Schools, Macon Co., 111. 

This is a new and excellent book by a prominent teacher of fourteen years’ ex- 
enee in practical school work. It contains a complete exposition of original and 
iessful methods of teaching United States History. Proceeding upon the assump- 
that the student should remember important facts, rather than minor details, 
Author presents by means of admirable Brace Outlines for the Blackboard, A 
,IES OF OBJECT LESSONS IN EXSTOEY —Lessons which appeal both to the Eye 

to the Understanding. 

This work also contains a Blackboard Analysis of each Topic in United States 
Tory, Directions for Teaching and Studying each Topic, Methods of Outlining, 
itten and Oral Reviews, Questions and Answers on U.S. History, Questions on In- 
tdual States, Names and Mottoes of States, etc. 

It teaches a pupil how to study his lesson, how to find the prominent facts need- 
how to find parallel authorities, how to remember dates, etc. The Brace Outr 
ks, which are a prominent feature of the work, fix Periods, Dates, and Principles 
the Mind with ease and photographic accuracy. They give a clear and intelligible 
.line of all important topics, confusing, non-essential details being avoided. 

The Blackboard Forms are instructive pictures for study: all can understand 
k m; anyone can easily copy them on the Blackboard- 

The Directions for Study are pointed, concise and helpful. Just what teachers 
d pupils need. 

The Queer Queries, of which there are about one thousand, are filled with pith 
jl point. Nothing better to stimulate an interest in History. 

The B.eview Questions constantly “bring out” what is likely to be forgotten, 
iey cover all important points. 

Answers to Queer Queries. — This department contains a complete History of 
leUnited States m a “Nutshell.’’ The answers are based upon reliable authorities. 

Individual States • — This chapter contains a clear and concise history of the 
ne of settlement, date of admission, and all the prominent points connected with 
eir history to date. 

Mottoes Of States is an interesting and instructive chapter. It may well be mem- 
ized. 

TZESTin^orKri-^i-iS. 

I can show hundreds of the most flattering testimonials, but have space for only 
ro. 

“We have examined the copy sent us and can truly say it is the best method of 
aching history that we have ever seen. Enclosed is M. O. for $8, for which 
■nd me 12 copies as offered. Iwish each of my teachers to have a copy.” — Amy M. 
uadley, Prin. Normal School, Wilmington, N. C, 

“You may write any testimonial, no matter how strong, for the History, and I 
ill sign it.” — R. H. Renney, Algonquin, 111. 

EiiP’ The book contains 225 pages, well printed on calendered paper, neatly and 
ibstantially bound in cloth. 

Agents wanted everywhere, who can easily sell a copy to every teacher, whether 
.e teaches history or not. 

PRICE, POSTPAID , $1.-00. 




HOW TO TEACH ARITHMETIC 


IS POINTED OUT STEP BY STEP IN 

Methods in Written Arithmetk 

BY 

Prof. JOHN W. COOK, 

Professor of Mathematics in the Illinois Normal University. 


/S^HIS book is without a rival, and is the best presentation ever made 
the entire subjedl. Every principle in Arithmetic and the best ar 
latest methods are clearly explained and illustrated by examples, and < 
difficult points are fully solved and illustrated. 

Prof. Cook is known throughout the country as a mathematical instru 
tor without a superior, and in the discussions of this work he has embodie 
his best thoughts on the subjedl of teaching numbers, the fruits of a lor 
experience, and the best methods that deep research and careful study ha^ 
mastered. The matter contained in the book is the same in substance ; 
that which Prof. Cook offers to his arithmetic classes in the Illinois Norm 
University. The definitions, methods of solution, form of analyses, etc., a: 
precisely those in which his instruction of those classes he has found to l 
the most effective in leading pupils to an accurate and thorough knowledg 
of the subject. For clearness and simplicity, the book is absolutely ui 
equaled, at least by anything that we have ever met with. We commen 
it to teachers as an invaluable help. 


Am highly pleased with its clearness and 
simplicity. — Prin. J. Pike. 

I have not only been a careful reader, but a 
close student of Prof. Cook’s work. It has 
been to me a fountain of new ideas. — C. J. 
Allen. 

His years of class-room work make him an 
excellent judge of what is best to present, and 
the best manner of presenting it. — Sup’t 
Burgess. 

I regard it as very va’ liable. It is clear, 
practical, and without nonsensical “hair- 
splitting” in definitions or analysis. — E. A. 
Gastman. 

Clear, sharp and vigorous, it cannot fail to 


be a valuable auxiliary in the teaching of th 
important subject. Worth many times tl 
cost. — S. Y. Gillan. 

I do not know of any place where there c; 
be found in so little space so much that is vi 
uable, and so concisely said, as in this wor 
It seems to me that in every case he giv 
“ the conclusion of the whole matter.” — Jc 
eph Carter. 

I am glad Prof. Cook has published tl 
volume, and I think it invaluable to corrt 
work in arithmetic. For years past I ha 
had to prepare notes for every new teach 
appointed to my school. Prof Cook’s bo< 
relieves me of this labor, and in a most sat 
fa<5tory manner. — W. H. Richardson. 


REVISED AND ENLARGED EDITION, BOUND I 
CLOTH, 175 PAGES. PRICE, POSTPAID, 75 CENTS. 

P i XiiL3sr-s.a--&jsr, 


163 Randolph Street, Chicaf" 


0 





OUS 



oven from many Queer, Quaint and Curious Ques- 
tions, gathered from many Queer Quar- 
ters, and all Unwound by 

a "tttti -r-5-cm-N a n 


There are 225 questions upon quaint and seemingly difficult points pertaining 
listory, Art, Science, Philosophy, Geography, Botany, and hosts of things 
ich are not generally known of by the average person. These are fully and com- 
' tely answered in the book. 

How to Use Curious Cobwebs. 


Take this little book just at the closing hour of your afternoon session, read one 
the simplest questions to the school and invite all to tell Pa and Ma of it when 
ty arrive at home. Insist that each individual shall try to find an answer if pos- 
le. An interest is thus aroused at home. The answer can be called for the first 
ng in the morning, this being an incentive for prompt attendance. A number 
questions can be placed on the board and remain there during the week until Fri- 
y afternoon when a general discussion can be had. I know that genuine interest 
n be elicited by this plan. Do not answer individual questions. Cite pupils to 
ct books, dictionary, etc. 

Objects of Curious. Cobwebs. 

To lessen the care of the teacher; to make the school more attractive and inter- 
ting; to interest parents in the work of the school ; to induce the pupil to look out- 
le of the text-book and schoolroom for information; to form habits of close observa 
>n in the growing pupil, and in forming these habits give him a fund of informa- 
m which will repay for all the trouble and time expended. 

The answers ar^ full and complete. It is fully indexed so that any item can be 
adily referred to. I give a few of the queries as samples: 

“How can you prove that there is a blind spot in the eye?” “What river is 
elled by a single letter?” “What state bought itself?” “How can you see a 
ail’s ‘foot’?” “What is the weight of a locomotive?” “In what battle of the 
evolution were all the dogs of the vicinity killed to prevent giving the alarm?” 
Jan a rabbit run up hill better than down? Why?” “What member of Congress 
is never late at roll call?” “Why will not the Jew’s Harp produce a loud noise 
thout placing it between the teeth?” “How can vessels carry grain free across 
e ocean?” 

These are only samples — many are more difficult than these and many are more 
nple. No one will regret having sent for this little book. 



HAVE YOU SEEN THEM? 




Hunter’s Helps to History 

OR HISTORICAL GAMES WITH CARDS 

ON THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STiTES. 


By D. ECKLEY HUNTER, Supt. Public Schools, Washington, Ind. 


SIX EDITIONS HAVE BEEN PUBLISHED. 

They have been sold in every State in the Union, and every Territory exce 
Alaska. Thousands of teachers have testified to the benefits they have receiv 
from them. 

THE CHILDREN ARE DELIGHTED WITH THEH 

And are thus induced to study History with new zeal. 

THE NOON noun , Which often hangs heavily upon both teacher a 
pupil, is passed pleasantly and profitably in playing Historical Games and searchi 
the books for events suggested on the cards. 

Can They be Used Profitably in the School Room? 

They certainly can. Many of the games are only varieties in the topical metii 
of recitation. This variety constitutes the game, keeps up the interest, gives grea 
freedom of speech, and reaches more pleasantly the same end that is attained by i 
ordinary recitation. 

There are twenty games, not difficult to learn. They impress historical events a 
dates upon the mind. 


What do Those Say that Have Used Them?--Here it i 

Teachers. — “They act like a charm with my history class. ” “They reduce history 
system.” T use them in my liistoryclass with good results.” “They enabled me to get 100 
cent, in history when I was examined.’’ “I can’t afford to be without them while I teach ) 
tory.” 

Parents. — “That is what I call profitable amusement.’’ “I always had the different warsri 
ed up in my mind, but this brings them out right ." 4 I never before could remember dates.” 

Children. — “They are twenty times as good as Authors’ Cards, for we can play that g 
and nineteen others.' ' “I have learned more history from these Cards in three evenings tha 
a month’s reading.” 

The Press. --We are certain that people are not generally aware of the amusement and 
struction to be found in games with Historic Cards, else the present edition would be exhau 
in a month . — Peru Republican. 

No one who has to do with children can invest sixty cents in any better way for amuser j 
than in purchasing a set cf these cards. — New York Educational Journal: 


WHERE CAN THEY BE HAD?— A box containing a full set 1 
of the cards, with directions for playing all the games will be sent by mai 
50 Cents. Address 

FJLm A. sx aGtAN, 

163 RANDOLPH ST., CHICAC 


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